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GRAMMAR 


OF    THE 


ENGLISH  LANGUAGE, 


BY 


SAMUEL  S.  GREENE,  A.M. 

AUTHOR  OF  "  INTRODUCTION  TO  THE   STUDY  OF   GRAMMAR,"  "  ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES,"  ETC. 


Si  volet  usus 
Quern  penes  arbitrium  est  et  jus  et  norma  loquendi. 

HOBACK. 


PHILADELPHIA : 
COWPERTHWAIT    &    CO. 

1870. 


i 


EDUCATION  DEPT« 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  In  the  year  1867,  by 

SAMUEL  S.  GREENE, 
in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  Ehode  Lsland. 


BLECTEOXTPED  BY  MACKELLAR,  SMITHS  k  JOEDA^ 
PHILADELPHIA. 


PREFACE. 


Language  is  a  growth,  and,  like  every  other  growth,  is  primarily 
dependent  upon  an  inward  vital  energy.  It  has  its  origin  and  its 
development  in  answer  to  an  instinctive  desire  of  the  soul  to  express 
its  thoughts  and  feelings.  The  power  of  speech  is  stimulated  by 
the  presence  of  external  objects,  and  takes  its  actual  form  by  means 
of  an  unconscious  ability  to  imitate  the  vocal  symbols  which 
chance  to  be  made  the  conventional  representatives  of  thought.  It 
matters  not  to  what  nation  or  people  the  child  may  belong :  be  he 
English,  French,  German,  or  Chinese,  it  is  all  the  same.  The 
speech  which  he  hears  in  his  childhood  becomes  his  vernacular 
tongue,  and  all  others  are  foreign. 

Place  him  among  the  cultivated  and  refined,  and  he  employs,  he 
knows  not  why,  the  pure  and  polished  speech  of  his  guardians  and 
associates.  On  the  contrary,  let  him  fall  among  the  rude  and 
illiterate,  and  he  as  readily  and  as  surely  accepts  for  his  native  lan- 
guage, his  mother  tongue,  their  perverted  words  and  incorrect  modes 
of  expression. 

Unfortunately  for  the  teacher,  the  period  for  direct  cultivation 
does  not  come  till  after  instinct  and  habit  have  given  a  degree  of 
permanency  to  these  malformations  which  have  grown  into  a  vital 
union  with  all  that  is  good  in  the  child's  style  of  speaking.  The 
task  of  correction  has  become  doubly  difficult,  requiring  the  uproot- 
ing of  old  expressions  and  the  planting  and  nurturing  of  new. 
Just  what  should  be  done  to  give  to  the  child  a  knowledge  of  a  foreign 
language,  must  now  be  done  to  establish  a  correct  and  refined  use 
of  his  own.  It  is  not  abstract  principles  that  he  wants,  but  rather 
a  practical  use  of  good,  well-authorized  expressions.  These  he  will 
adopt,  not  by  repeating  rules,  but  by  discarding  the  faulty  and  using 
the  good.  He  learns  to  speak  good  English  by  speaking  good 
English.  He  learns  the  use  of  new  expressions  by  using  them. 
Of  what  consequence,  then,  is  it  hew  he  obtains  them, — whether  by 
rule,  or  by  direct  dictation  from  the  teacher?  The  time  for  the 
teacher  to  commence  this  process  of  cultivation  is  the  day  the  pupil 

enters  school.     • 

3 

700944 


4  PREFACE. 

How  unfortunate  is  the  prevailing  impression  that  the  cultivation 
of  language  and  the  study  of  grammar,  as  a  science,  must  begin 
together!  There  is  no  period  from  the  time  the  child  begins  to 
speak,  through  his  whole  life,  during  which  his  language  may  noi 
be  improved.  On  the  contrary,  there  is  a  time  when  the  technical 
and  scientific  statements  of  grammar  are  of  little  or  no  use.  They 
become  valuable  when  the  child  has  reached  such  a  degree  of 
development  as  shall  enable  him  to  comprehend  their  application. 
Shall  all  the  earlier  period  of  his  school  life  be  passed  without 
a  systematic  effort  to  cultivate  his  power  to  use  the  language 
correctly  ? 

For  some  of  the  methods  of  this  earlier  culture,  and  especially 
for  the  processes  of  transition  to  the  more  technical  methods  of 
teaching  grammar,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  Introduction  to  the 
Study  of  English  Grammar,  Part  I. 

Not  a  few  teachers  labor  under  a  mistaken  idea  of  the  proper 
function  of  grammatical  rules.  Mere  rules  cannot  correct  an  in- 
veterate habit ;  the  pupil  may  repeat  them  with  entire  verbal  accu- 
racy again  and  again,  and  as  often  violate  them  in  his  very  next 
utterances.  The  rule  merely  informs  him  of  a  given  analogy  of  the 
language.  His  habit  is  stronger  than  his  rule,  and  can  be  overcome 
only  by  that  resolute  effort  and  determined  purpose  which  might 
have  given  him  success  at  an  earlier  period,  guided  merely  by  the 
dictation  of  the  teacher.  The  difference  would  be  this  ^  then,  he 
would  have  received  his  law  from  the  teacher ;  now,  he  is  a  law  unto 
himself.  He  has  the  means  of  correction  at  his  own  command. 
But  it  is  only  a  persistent  obedience  to  law,  in  either  case,  that 
insures  success.  The  rules  of  grammar  are  the  criteria  by  which 
he  can  test  his  own  language ;  but  it  depends  upon  himself  whether 
these  tests  shall  be  applied  and  enforced.  The  advantage  which  he 
enjoys  over  those  who  are  ignorant  of  the  rules  of  grammar  is,  that 
he  may  always  know  whether  he  is  right  or  wrong,  while  they  are 
ever  in  doubt  as  to  the  correctness  of  their  own  expressions. 

The  following  work  contains  a  discussion  of  the  principles  of 
English  Grammar.  The  fundamental  rule  by  which  the  subject 
has  been  developed  is,  that  no  theory  of  grammar  is  true  or 
reliable  that  cannot  be  abundantly  verified  by  direct  appeals  to  thfe 
usage  of  standard  authors.  The  grammar  of  a  language  should 
be  derived  from  the  language  itself.  It  is  not  the  province  of  the 
grammarian  to  legislate  in  matters  of  language,  but  to  classify 
and  arrange  its  forms  and  principles  by  a  careful  study  of  its 
analogies  as  seen  in  the  usage  of  the  best  writers.    He  does  not 


1»EEFACE.  5 

make  the  rules  and  definitions  which  express  these  analogies :  they 
had  already  existed,  and  were  obeyed,  —unconsciously,  it  is  true, — ■ 
long  before  he  formed  them  into  words  and  published  them.  Nor 
are  they  authoritative  because  he  has  uttered  them,  but  simply 
because  they  are  just  and  faithful  interpretations  of  the  already 
existing  laws  which  underlie  and  pervade  the  language  itself.  He 
is  a  discoverer, — not  an  inventor,  not  a  dictator, — but  is  true  to  his 
task  just  so  far  as  he  investigates  and  reinvestigates  original  sources 
found  in  the  language  itself, — not,  of  course,  rejecting  the  light 
which  cotemporary  or  previous  labor  has  shed  upon  his  pathway. 

In  the  following  classification  of  the  principles  of  Grammar, 
great  prominence  has  been  given  to  thoughts  and  ideas  in  their  rela- 
tion to  forms.  The  complete  sentence  is  at  first  regarded  as  a  unitj 
— an  expression  of  a  single  thought, — and  that,  too,  whatever  may  be 
the  number  of  propositions  combined  in  it,  or  whatever  may  be  the 
characteristic  of  the  thought,  as  a  statement,  a  command,  an  inquiry^ 
or  an  exclamation.  The  thought  determines  the  sentence.  The 
classification  of  the  sentence  depends  upon  its  specific  peculiarities. 
Again,  in  separating  the  sentence  into  its  parts,  the  element  is 
taken  as  the  unit,  an  expression  of  a  single  idea  of  the  full  thought, 
and  that,  too,  whether  it  be  a  single  word  or  a  group  of  words,  or 
whatever  may  be  its  form,  structure,  rank,  or  office.  Here,  again, 
the  idea  determines  the  element,  while  the  classification  depends 
upon  some  peculiarity  of  the  element  itself.  Again,  an  element  of 
the  sentence  may  itself  contain  elements  which  may  all  unite  to 
express  one  of  the  chief  ideas  of  the  whole  sentence.  These,  in 
like  manner,  *are  determined  and  classified.  Finally,  each  single 
element  is  itself  a  word,  or  may  be  separated  into  the  words  which 
form  it.  Thus,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  sentence  is  not  treated  at 
first  as  an  assemblage  of  words  (which  is  the  usual  way),  but  as  an 
assemblage  of  elements  variously  expressed ;  and  in  the  final  analy- 
sis these  elements  are  reduced  to  words.  It  is  this  peculiarity  that 
brings  the  learner  into  sympathy  with  the  thought  itself, — the  vi|;al 
power  which  determines  all  the  forms  of  the  sentence.  It  gives 
him  an  interior  view  of  its  structure,  and  enables  him  to  witness  its 
growth  and  to  sit  in  judgment  with  the  writer  in  his  choice  of  forms. 

The  Grammar  of  the  English  Language  will  be  found  to  contain 
the  same  classifications  of  sentences  and  elements  that  are  embodied 
in  the  Analysis,  and  in  all  that  pertains  to  the  classification,  modifi- 
cation, and  construction  of  words,  it  is  believed,  is  sufficiently  full. 

It  is  intended  to  follow  the  Introduction,  and  to  precede  the 
Analysis,  which  is  adapted  to  advanced  pupils. 


6  PREFACE. 

Although  each  book  may  be  used  independently  of  the  others, 
the  order  in  which  they  stand  is : — 

I.  The  Introduction. 

II.  The  Grammar  of  the  English  Language. 
III.  The  Analysis  of  Sentences. 

A  careful  perusal  of  the  book,  it  is  believed,  will  justify  the 
following  statement  of  its  peculiarities : — 

1.  It  recognizes  the  sentence  as  a  growth  from  the  subject  and 
the  predicate,  and  proceeds,  step  by  step,  to  examine  each  accumu- 
lation around  these  as  a  centre.     (See  Models  in  Syntax.) 

2.  It  gives  the  relation  and  effect  of  whole  expressions ;  that  is, 
it  teaches  how  to  parse  these,  as  well  as  to  parse  single  words,— an 
advantage  lost  sight  of  in  most  treatises. 

3.  It  teaches  how  to  parse  every  kind  of  word,  in  its  rare  as  well  as 
in  its  usual  relations. 

4.  It  discriminates  clearly  between  important  matter  to  be  studied, 
and  useful  matter  to  be  read. 

5.  The  several  subjects  are  developed  logically  and,  it  is  believed, 
stated  clearly. 

6.  The  author  has  not  evaded,  or  left  without  an  opinion  dis- 
tinctly stated,  those  perplexing  points  which  often  annoy  the 
teacher. 

7.  It  will  be  found  to  contain  a  great  variety  of  models  for 
parsing  and  analysis. 

8.  So  far  as  a  text-book  can  do  it,  the  pupil  is  made  to  use  and 
apply  his  knowledge  as  fast  as  he  acquires  it,  by  means  of  exercises 
which  compel  him  to  think,  write,  and  invent  for  himself. 

9.  A  copious  index  will  enable  the  teacher  to  turn  readily  to 
any  topic. 

10.  The  mechanical  execution,  both  as  it  respects  printing  and 
binding,  is  superior. 

The  author  acknowledges  his  indebtedness  to  many  friends  for  a 
great  variety  of  suggestions  which  he  has  noted,  and  embodied  in 
some  form  or  other  in  these  pages.  A  few  changes  have  been  made 
in  the  arrangement  of  the  matter,  and  slight  modifications  will  be 
found  in  the  matter  itself.  As  a  whole,  it  is  hoped,  the  work  will 
be  found  both  complete  and  convenient  as  a  text-book  of  English 
Grammar. 

S.  S.  GREENE. 
Providence,  July,  1867. 


INDEX. 


[The  Section-numbers  are  indicated  by  bold  figures.] 


A,  peculiar  use  of. ^ }il3,  2 

Abridged  expressions 133,  3 

propositions 16  7 

clauses „167,  2 

Absolute  tenses 99,  4,  5,  6 

nominative 191,  2 

Abstract  noun,  defined 36,  8 

Accent,  defined 21,  6 

marks  of. 335,  12 

Active  verb 83,  5,  a 

voice 87,  3,  8 

Adjective,  defined 55,  1 

limiting 56,  2 

qualifying 63,  1 

pronominal 59 

numeral 61 

comparison  of. 64 

rule  for 181 

participial 63,  3;  305,  2, a 

position  of 181,  5 

Adverb,  defined 34,  6 

classes  of. 134 

modal 134,  6 

independent 134,  11 

conjunctive 135 

comparison  of 137 

rule  for 189 

position  of. 189,  3 

Adverbial  idea,  how  expressed 133,  2 

elements 154,  1,  6 

phrases 199,  4 

Adversative  conjunctions 143,  6 

clauses 165,  1 

Affirm,  how  employed 80,  3,  4 

After,  peculiar  use  of 313,  2 

Agreement  of  pronouns 177,  1 

of  verbs 179,  1 

of  verb  and  pronoun  with  coordi- 
nate nouns 195 

Alexandrine  verse 341,  9 

All,  peculiar  use  of 313,  2 

Allegory,  defined 317,  4 


I  Alphabet,  the 8,  2 

Alternative  conjunctions 143,  9 

clauses 169,  1 

Amphibrach,  the 339,  10 

Analysis 18,  5;  147,  10 

directions  for 170 

general  exercise  in... 171 

Anapsest 339,  8 

Anapaestic  verse 343 

Antecedent,  the 68,  3 

■when  a  collective  noun 177,  1,  a 

Antiquated  words 346,  3 

Antithesis 317,  10 

Aphajresis 315,  3 

Apocope 315,  5 

Apostrophe 317, 14 

mark  of. 335,  2 

Apposition,  noun  in 183,  1,  4 

Arrangement  of  elements 168,  4 

improper,  of  Avords 309,  8 

unusual 346,  3 

Article,  defined 57 

rules  for 181, 1 

omitted,  inserted,  repeated....  181,  6,'/ 

As,  use  of. 301,  6,  7,  8;  313,  2 

Aspirates 3,  6 

classes  of. 5 

Asterisk 335,4 

Attribute,  rule  for 175,  1 

in  abridged  propositions 175,  1,  6 

Attributive  object 187,  1,  9 

Auxiliaries,  signification  of. 113 

Auxiliary  verb 64,  5 

names  of. Ill 

conjugation  of. 113 

uses  of. 115 

Ballad,  the 238,9 

Be,  pure  verb 80,  5 

as  an  auxiliary 113,  2 

Between  and  betwixt 197,  5 

Blank  verse 337, 10 

7 


8 


INDEX. 


Both,  peculiar  use  of. 313, 1 

Brace,  the 335,  8 

Brackets 335,1 

But,  as  preposition 199,  3 

peculiar  use  of. 313 

Caesural  pause 345,  2 

Can 113,  10 

Capitals,  defined 9,  2 

rules  for  use  of. 11 

Caret 235,  5 

Case, of  nouns 50 

possessive,  how  formed 50,  5 

how  used 73,  2;  185,  2 

Cautions,  special 309 

Classes  of  adverbs 134 

of  connectives 14:3 

Clause  used  as  subject 173 

as  attribute 175, 1,  a 

Clauses  defined 150,  6 

substantive 163,  1 

classes  of. 165, 1 

Climax 317,15 

Collective  noun  defined 36,  7 

as  antecedent 177,  1,  a 

as  subject  of  verb 179,  1,  a 

Colon,  use  of 337,  1 

Common  form  of  verb 109,  5,  6 

metre 341,  10 

Comparative,  when  used 181,  IG 

Comparison  of  adjectives 64 

rules  for 65 

of  adverbs 137 

Complex  sentence 150,  2 

element 156,  3 

subject,  how  formed...  160,  4;  163,  3 
predicate,  how  formed,  160,5;  163,4 

sentence,  how  contracted 167,  1 

words 313,  2 

Compound  word 33,  3 

personal  pronouns 70,  6 

relative  pronouns 76,  1 

element 156,  5 

sentences 165 

epithets 346,  2 

Conjugation  of  auxiliaries 113 

of  the  verb 117 

of  Bg..... 119 

of  Love 131 

Conjunction,  defined 34,  8 

copulative 143,  4,  5 

adversative 143,  6 

rule  for  coordinate 193,  1 

Conjunctive  adverbs 135,  189,  7 


Connectives,  classes  of. 143 

rule  for  subordinate 301,  1 

Consonants,  union  of 15 

Construction,  rules  of 1^3 

of  pronouns 177,  10 

coordinate 195 

errors  in 308 

Contracted  sentences 166 

Coordinate  connectives 143,  2 

elements 153,  3 

conjunctions,  rule  for 193,  1 

constructions,  rules  for 195 

Copula,  defined 80,  5 

Copulative  conjunctions 143,  4,  5 

Correlatives 143,5;  193,6;  301,4 

Couplet 340,5 

Dactyl 339,  9 

Dactylic  verse 344 

Dash,  when  used 339 

Declarative  sentences 149,  1 

Declension  of  nouns 51 

of  pronouns 73,  1 

Defective  verb,  defined 84,  4 

verbs, list  of. 139,  2 

Derivation,  defined 31,  15 

Derivative  words 33,  2 

Diseresis,  mark  of 335,  12 

figure  of. 315,  9 

Didactic  poetry 238,  0 

Different  kinds  of  poetry 338,  1 

of  verse 340,  1 

Diphthong 14,  1 

Direct  discourse 163,  1 

object 187,  2 

Directions  for  analysis 170 

Discourse,  direct  and  indirect 163 

Do,  as  an  auxiliary 113,  3 

Dramatic  poem 338,  3 

Elegy,  defined 238,  5 

Elementary  sounds 3 

table  of. 6 

Elements  of  a  sentence 147,  9 

syntax  of 153,  1 

principal,  subordinate,  coordinate,  153 

simple,  complex,  compound 156 

equivalent 16  8, 1 

arrangement  of. 168,  4 

punctuation  of. 330,  333,  334 

Ellipses,  improper 309,  5 

Ellipsis,  defined 316,  3 

when  it  occurs 316,  4 

marks  of. 335,  7 


INDEX. 


9 


Emphatic  form  of  verb 109,  7,  8;  13^ 

Enallage,  figure  of. 316,  7 

Epic  poem 338,  2 

Epigram,  defined 338,  11 

Epitaph,  defined 338,  12 

Epithets,  compound 346,  3 

Equivalent  elements 168,  1 

Errors  in  construction 30  8 

corrected  by  cautions 309 

miscellaneous 210 

Etymology,  defined 33,  1 

figures  of. 315 

Exclamation,  figure  of 317,  12 

point  of. 333f  1 

Exclamatory  sentences 14:9,  4 

False  syntax 308 

Feet,  poetic 339,  1,  5 

Figures,  defined 314:,  1 

of  etymology 315 

of  syntax 316 

of  rhetoric 31T 

Final  pause 34:5,  2 

Foot,  in  poetry 339,  2 

Foreign  idioms 346,  3 

Forms  of  the  verb 109 

for  each  division  of  time 110,  136 

of  the  elements 155 

Future  tense 105 

perfect  tense 106 

Gender,  defined ■4'?',  1 

methods  of  distinguishing 48 

Have,  as  an  auxiliary 113,  4 

Heroic  verse 341,  9 

Hyperbaton,  figure  of. 316,  8 

Hyperbole,  figure  of. 317,  11 

Hyphen,  use  of. 335,  6 

Iambic  verse 343 

Iambus,  defined 339,  6 

Idea-words 313,  1 

Idiomatic  use  of  words 311,  2 

phrases 213,  2 

Idioms 311,  3 

foreign 346,  3 

Illative  conjunction 193,  4,  5 

Imperative  mode 89,  8, 15 

sentences 149,  3 

Impersonal  verb 84,  6;  130,  3 

Improper  ellipses 309,  5 

arrangement  of  words 309,  8 

Incorrect  use  of  words 307 


Independent  adverb 134, 11;  189,  2 

nominative 191 

participle 305,2,/ 

expressions,  punctuation  of. 336 

Index,  mark  of. 335,  9 

Indicative  mode 89,  5, 10 

Indirect  discourse 163,  2 

object 187,2 

Infinitive  mode 89,  9,  16,  17 

rule  for 303,  1 

subject  of. 303,  3 

uses  of. 303,  4 

Inflection,  defined 31,  15 

strong  and  weak,  of  verbs 137,  1 

Interjections 34,  10 

list  of. 137,  2 

Interrogation,  figure  of. 317,  13 

point 333,  1 

Interrogative  pronouns 78 

form  of  verb 133 

sentences 149,  2 

conjugation 133 

Irony,  figure  of. 317,  9 

Irregular  verbs,  defined 84,  3 

list  <«f. 137,  2 

It,  uses  of. 70,  4 

as  subject 175,  2 

Italics,  use  of. 11, 10 

Letter,  defined 8, 1 

used  as  a  subject 173 

used  as  an  attribute 175,  a 

License,  poetic 346 

List  of  prepositions 140 

of  irregular  verbs 137,  2 

Logical  subject 15  8,  2 

predicate 15  8,  3 

Long  metre 341,  10 

Lyric  poem 338,  4 

May,  used  as  an  auxiliary 113,  9, 10 

Metaphor,  the 317,  2 

Metonymy,  figure  of. 317,  6 

Metre,  different  kinds  of. 341,  1ft 

Misapplications  to  be  avoided 309,  4 

miscellaneous,  in  use  of  words 310 

Mixed  sentences 149,  2 

Modal  adverbs 134,  6 

Mode,  defined 89,  \ 

Modifier,  defined 147,  8 

Must,  used  as  an  auxiliary 113,  H 

Negative  conjugation 133 

Neuter  verb 83,  5,  e 


10 


INDEX. 


No,  peculiar  use  of. /81/8 

Nominative,  the,  defined 50,  3 

independent 191 

absolute 191,  2 

Noun,  defined 34,  2 

classes  ofl 36 

persons  of. 39 

numbers  of. 41 

genders.of. 4:7 

cases  of. 50 

declension  of. 51 

as  subject 1'3'3, 1 

as  attribute 175,  1 

how  restricted 181,  3 

in  apposition 183, 1 

in  the  possessive 185,  1 

participial S05,  3 

Now,  peculiar  use  of. /81JJ 

Number  of  noun 41 

of  verb 116 

Object  of  transitivef  verb 83,  6 

as  subject 173,  5 

rule  for 187,  1 

attributive 187,1,9 

direct  and  indirect 187,  2 

position  of. 187,  8 

of  preposition,  rule  for 199,  1 

the  infinitive  as 303,  4 

Objective,  the,  defined 50,  11 

rule  for 199,  1 

as  predicate 303,  3 

Omitted  subject 173,  3 

Orthography 3 

Paragoge,  figure  of. 315,  7 

Paragraph,  mark  of. 335,  11 

Parenthesis,  when  used 339,4 

Parenthetic  expressions,  punctuation 

of 336 

Parsing,  defined 53 

Participial  adjective 63,  3;  305,  2 

noun 305,  3 

Participle,  defined 91,  1 

different  kinds  of. 93,  94,  95 

rules  for 181,1;  305,  1 

uses  of. 305,  2,  3,  4 

Parts  of  speech,  defined 34 

Passive  verb~ 83,  5,  6 

voice 87,  4,  7 

form 109,  11 

Past  tense 103 

perfect  tense 104 

Pastoral  poem 338,  7 


Pauses,  poetic 345 

Peculiar  use  of  words 311 

Period  of  time 99,  3 

use  of. 331,  1 

Person,  defined 39,  1 

of  verb 116 

Personal  pronouns 70,  1 

declension  of. 73,  1 

Personification,  figure  of. 317,  5 

applied  to  inanimate  objects 47,  7 

Perversions  to  be  avoided 309,  2 

Phrase,  a 139,3;  155,2;  160,1 

used  as  subject 173 

used  as  attribute 175 

adverbial 199,  4 

Phrases,  idiomatic 313,  2 

antiquated .346,  3 

Pleona.sm 316,  5 

Plural  of  nouns 43 

how  formed 43,  44 

Poetic  feet 339, 1 

pauses 345 

license 346 

Poetry,  defined 337,  4 

different  kinds  of. 338,  1 

Point  of  time 99,  2 

Points,  punctuation 3 1 8 

Position  of  subject 173,  4 

of  the  pronoun 177,  7 

of  the  adjective 181,  5 

of  the  object 187,  8 

of  the  adverb 189,  3 

Possessive  case,  defined 50,  5 

formation  of. 50,  6,  7,  8 

Possessives,  how  used 73,  2 

in  apposition 183,  12 

rule  for 185 

constructions 185,  8,  9,  10 

Potential  mode 89,  6, 11, 12 

Power  of  a  letter 8,  4 

Predicate,  defined 147,  5 

nominative 83,  7 

adjective 181 

objective 303,  3 

logical 158,  160,  163 

Prefixes,  defined 31,  12 

rules  for  applj'ing 37 

Prepositions,  defined 34,  7 

list  of 140 

complex 140,  1 

rule  for 197,  1 

object  of. 199,  I 

when  omitted 199, 1,  a 

Present  tense 101 


INDEX. 


11 


Present  perfect  tenso 10/8 

Primitive  word 33,  1 

Principal  parts  of  verb 117,  4 

elements 153,  1 

Progressive  form  of  verb 109,  9;  134: 

Pronoun,  defined 68 

personal 70 

compound  personal TO,  6 

declension  of. 73 

relative 74,  75 

interrogative 78 

construction  of. 177, 1, 10 

position  of. 177,  7,  8 

agreement  with  coordinate  nouns,  195 

Proposition,  defined 150,  2 

different  kinds  of 150,  5 

abridged 167 

Prosody,  defined 337,  1 

Prosthesis 315,  6 

Provincialisms 309,  3 

Punctuation,  defined 318,  1 

marks  of 318,  6 

Pyrrhic  foot 339, 10 

Quantity,  in  prosody 337,  1 

Quotation-marks 335,  3 

Quotations,  direct  and  indirect 163 

Radical,  or  root 31, 11 

Rather,  peculiar  use  of. 313 

Redundant  verb 130,  1 

Reflexive  pronouns 70,  8 

Regular  verb 84,  2 

use  of  words 173 

Relative  tenses 99,  4,  5,  6 

when  restrictive 177,  12 

when  explanatory 177, 12 

Relatives,  simple 75 

compound 76,  1 

uses  of. 177,  14 

Repetitions,  unnecessary 309,  6 

Rhetoric,  figures  of. 317 

Rhyme,  defined 337,  6 

Root,  defined 31, 11 

Rules  of  syntax 173 

Satire,  defined 338,  8 

Save,  peculiar  use  of. 313 

Scanning 340,  4 

Section,  mark  of. 335,  10 

Semicolon,  use  of 337,  1 

Sentence,  defined 147,  2 

kinds  of,  149, 150, 158, 165,  166 

transformation  of 168 

Sentenee-making 147 


Shall  and  Will,  auxiliaries 113,  5 

rules  for  use  of. 113,  6,  7,  8 

Short  metre 341,  10 

Signification  of  auxiliaries 113 

Simile,  defined 317,  3 

Simple  element 156,  1 

sentences 15  8 

So,  peculiar  use  of. 313 

Sonnet,  defined 338,  10 

Special  cautions 309 

Spelling,  defined 35 

rules  for 36,  37,  38 

Spondee,  the 339,  10 

Stanza,  the 340,  6 

Subject,  defined 80,  7;  147,  4 

complex  or  logical 15  8,  2;  160,  4 

as  a  clause 163 

rule  for 173 

when  omitted 173,  3 

position  of. 173,  4 

of  infinitive 303,  3 

Siibjunctive  mode 89,  7,  13,  14 

Subordinate  connectives 143,  12 

rule  for 301,  6 

classes  of. 143,  15 

elements 15  3,  2 

clause,  how  abridged 167,  2 

Subsequent,  the 139,  2 

Subvocals 3,  5 

classes  of. 5 

Suffix,  defined 31,  13 

rules  for  applying 38 

Superlative,  when  used 181,  17 

Syllabication 30 

Syllables 18 

Synjeresis,  figure  of. 315,  8 

Syncope,  figure  of 315,  4 

Synecdoche,  figure  of. 317,  8 

Synopsis 134 

Syntax,  defined 147, 1 

preliminary,  development  of. 147 

of  sentences 149 

of  elements 153 

of  words 173 

false 308 

figures  of. 316 

Synthesis,  defined 18,  5;  147, 10 

Table  of  poetic  feet 339,  12 

Tense,  defined 98,  1 

present 101 

present  perfect. 103 

past 103 

past  perfect 104 


12 


INDEX. 


Tense,  future 105 

future  perfect 106 

Tenses  in  all  the  modes 107 

Than,  before  Whom 199,  5 

showing  comparison 301,  6 

That,  uses  of. T5,  8;  1T7,  19; 

181,10;  301,8 

There,  an  expletive 134,  9;  313,  2 

They,  erroneous  use  of. ll^,  5 

Thou,  uses  of. 70,  5 

Time,  point  of. 99,  2 

period  of 99,  3 

Tmesis,  figure  of. 315, 10 

To,  when  omitted 303,  1,  a 

Ti-an sformation  of  sentences 168 

Transitive  verb,  defined 83,  2 

Tribrach,  the 339,  10 

Triphthong 14,  4 

Trochaic  verse 343 

Trochee,  the 339,  7 

True  rhyme 337,  7 

Unbecoming  expressions 309,  9 

Union  of  vowels 14 

of  consonants 15 

of  vowels  and  consonants 16 

Unnecessary  repetitions 309,  6 

words 309,  7 

Unusual  arrangement  of  words 346,  3 

Use  of  words 173,  307,  311 

Uses  of  the  infinitive 303,  4 

of  the  comma 319 

of  dash  and  parenthesis 339 

of  the  period 331 

.   of  semicolon  and  colon 337 

of  interrogation  and  exclamation 

points 333 

of  other  marks 335 

Vsrlj,  defined 80,  1 


Verb,  attributive 80,  > 

^^ 80,6 

transitive gjj   o. 

intransitive g^    3 

active,  passive,  neuter 83 

regular  and  irregular 84,  2,  3 

defective  and  auxiliar}' 84,  4,  5 

impersonal 84,  6;  130,  2,  3 

forms  of. , 109 

list  of  irregular 137,  2 

list  of  redundant 130, 1 

number  and  person  of. 116 

conjugation  of. 117 

principal  parts  of. 117,  4 

agreement  with  subject 179,  1 

agreement  with  coordinate  nouns,  195 

Verse,  defined 337 

different  kinds  of.....3405  341,  343, 
343,  344 

Versification,  defined 337,  2 

Vision,  figure  of. 317,  7 

Vocals,- defined 3,  4 

classes  of. 4. 

union  of 14 

Voice 8  7 

Vowel-mark*..: 335,  12 

Vulgarisms 309,  1 

What,  different  uses  of. 75,  7;  189,  5; 

313 

Will  and  Shall 113 

Words,  defined 31 

classes  of. %% 

formation  of. 30 

syntax  of. 173 

unnecessary 309,  1 

complex 313 

antiquated 346,  3 

Worth,  peculiar  use  of. 313,  2 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


1.  Definitions  and  Divisions. 

1.  Crraminar  is  the  science  which  treats  of  the  gene- 
ral principles  of  language. 

2.  £ngliisli  Orainiuav  treats  of  the  principles  and 
usages  of  the  English  language;  it  teaches  us  to  speak  and 
write  it  correctly. 

3.  It  relates, — 

(a.)  To  the  elementary  sounds  and  letters  of  the  language.; 
(&.)  To  the  classification  and  modification  of  its  words ; 
(c.)  To  the  structure  of  its  sentences, — and 
(d.)  To  the  laws  of  its  versification.     Hence, — 

4.  Orammar  is  divided  into  four  parts, — Orthogra- 
pliy.  Etymology,  ISyntax,  and  Prosody. 

5.  Orthograpliy  treats  of  elementary  sounds,  the  letters 
which  represent  them,  and  the  combination  of  letters  into 
syllables  and  words. 

Orthoepy  treats  of  the  proper  pronunciation  of  words. 

6.  Etymology  treats  of  the  classification,  derivation, 
and  various  modifications  of  words. 

7.  Syntax  treats  of  the  construction  of  sentences. 

8.  Prosody  treats  of  the  laws  of  versification. 

2  13 


14  ENGLISH  GEAMMAR. 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 

2.  Definition. 

Ortbograpliy  treats  of  elementary  sounds,  the  letters 
which  represent  them,  and  the  combination  of  letters  into 
syllables  and  words. 

ELEMENTAEY  SOUNDS. 

3.  Number  and  Classes. 

1.  An  elementary  sound  is  the  simplest  sound  of  the 
language.  ^ 

Ex. — Tke  sound  of  a,  e;  h  or  k. 

2.  The  English  language  contains  about  forty  elementary 
sounds. 

3.  These  sounds  are  divided  into  three  classes, — vocals, 
subToeals,  and  aspirates. 

4.  The  vocals  consist  of  pure  tone  only. 

They  are  formed  by  an  interrupted  flow  of  vocalized  breath. 

Examples. — The  sounds  of  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  ou;  as,  in  a-le,  f-a-r,  b-a-11, 
li-a-t,  m-e,  m-e-t,  f-i-ne,  p-i-n,  g-o-ld,  m-o-ve,  n-o-t,  m-w-te,  p-w-11,  c-w-p, 
f-ow-nd. 

Remark. — The  letters  are  but  imperfect  guides  to  these  sounds. 

5.  The  subTocals  consist  of  tone  united  with  breath. 

They  are  formed  by  an  interrupted  flow  of  breath  partially  vocalized. 

Ex. — The  sounds  of  6,  cf,  g,j,  I,  m,  n,  ng,  r,  th,  v,  w,  z,  z  (zh),  y;  as,  in 
6-at,  d-og,  g-o,  j-oj,  lot,  w-an,  n-o,  eo-ng,  ba-r,  th-ia,  r-at,  w-in,  2-one, 
a-2-ure,  y-es. 

6.  The  aspirates  consist  of  pure  breath  only. 

They  are  formed  by  an  interrupted  flow  of  breath  without  vocality. 

Ex. — The  sounds  of/,  h,  k,  p,  s,  t,  th,  sh,  ch,  wh;  as,  in  /-aith,  A-ome, 
ir-t,  p-ine,  s-un,  t-ake,  th-ink,  sh-one,  cA-ur-Z,  wh-eu. 


ORTHOGRAPHY — ELEMENTARY  SOUNDS.  15 

Remark. — When  closely  examined,  it  will  be  found  that  some  of  the  sounds 
here  represented  as  elementary,  as,  for  example,  i  in  isle  (a  in  far  and  e  in 
me),  ou  in  found  (a  in  all  and  oo  in  fool),  J  in  joy  (dzh),  ch  in  church  (tsh), 
may  be  resolved  into  simpler  sounds;  yet,  for  practical  purposes,  they  may  be 
regarded  as  elementary. 


4.  Classes  of  Tocals. 

1.  Vocals  are  divided  into  long  and  short. 

2.  The  long   sound  is  one  that  can  be  protracted  at 
pleasure;  as  in  may ay,  hee ee. 

3.  The  short  sound  is  one  that  is  uttered  with  an  ex- 
plosive effort;  as  in  pin,  pen,  hat,  sit. 

Remark. — The  long  and  short  vocals  are  formed  with  the  same  position 
of  the  organs.  Thus,  a  in  hat  is  properly  the  short  sound  of  a  in  far,  not  a 
in  hate;  while  e  in  met  is  the  short  sound  of  a  in  hate.  The  i  in  pin  is  the 
short  sound  of  ee  in  seen.  The  o  in  not  is  the  short  sound  of  o  in  nor,  not  o 
in  note.     The  «  in  but  is  the  short  sound  of  u  in  fur,  not  u  in  7nutc. 


5.  Classes  of  Subvoeals  and  Aspirates. 

1.  The  subvoeals  and  aspirates  are  divided,  in  a  similar 
manner,  into  continuous  and  explosive. 

2.  The  continuous  are  capable  of  prolongation. 

They  are  tlie  sounds  of  (subvoeals)  /,  m,  n,  ng,  r,  th,  v,  w,  y,  z=r  zh;  as 
in  ba-^^,  ca-m-e,  rai-w,  BO-ng,  ca-r,  ba-iA-e,  la-v-e,  w-o,  y-es,  ma-z-e,  a-z-ure ; 
(aspirates),/,  h,  s,  th,  sh,  wh,  in  lea-/,  A-eat,  thi-s,  hea-th,  lea-sA,  wh-j. 

3.  The  explosive  are  incapable  of  prolongation. 

They  are  the  sounds  of  (subvoeals)  b,  d,  g,  j;  as  in  ca-6,  be-c?,  do-^, 
j-ob ;  (aspirates),  p,  t,  k,  ch,  in  ti-p,  pi-^,  k-in,  lur-cA. 

4.  The  subvoeals,  represented  by  w  and  y,  are  nearly  allied  to  the 
vocals  in  oo-ze  and  m-ee-t.    They  may  be  called  semi-vocals. 

5.  The  aspirates  represented  by  wh  and  h  are  properly  breathings. 

The  sound  of  h  is  formed  with  an  open  position  of  the  organs ;  that  of 
wh,  with  the  lips  contracted  nearly  as  in  the  sound  of  w. 


16  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

6.  Of  the  remaining  subvocals  and  aspirates,  sixteen  are 
called  correlatives  or  cognatefs,  and  may  be  arranged  in 
eight  pairs. 

Thus,  h-p,  d-t,  g-k,  j-ch,  th-th,  v-f,  z-s,  zh-sh.  Each  pair  is  formed  with 
the  same  position  of  the  organs. 

7.  The  first  four  pairs  are  explosive,  the  others  are  con- 
tinuous. 

8.  The  correlatives  are  sometimes  called  mutes,  because, 
in  their  formation,  the  organs  are  more  or  less  closed. 

9.  The  subvocals,  represented  by  I,  m,  n,  ng,  and  r,  have 
no  corresponding  aspirates.  They  are  called  liquids,  be- 
cause they  flow  readily  into  other  sounds. 

Remark  1.— All  the  liquids  are  subvocals, — while  half  of  the  mutes  are 
aspirates. 

The  liquids  are  all  continuous, — while  half  of  the  mutes  are  explosive. 

Every  continuous  subvocal  mute  has  a  rough,  buzzing  sound ;  the  liquids 
have  a  smooth,  flowing  sound. 

A  mute  may  unite  with  a  mute,  hut  it  must  be  a  subvocal  with  a  subvocal, 
or  an  aspirate  with  an  aspirate.  (See  15,  2.)  A  liquid  may  unite  with  a 
liquid,  as  in  arm,  barn/  or  with  a  mute  either  subvocal  or  aspirate,  as  in  carja, 
czrd,  har^,  hare?.  It  must  not  be  understood,  however,  that  any  liquid  will 
combine  with  any  other  liquid,  or  that  any  liquid  will  combine  with  any  mute. 
Thus,  the  sounds  of  mn  will  not  coalesce ;  the  sound  of  I  seldom  unites  with 
that  of  m  or  n.  The  sound  of  m  does  not  readily  unite  with  that  of  k;  nor 
does  the  sound  of  n  with  that  of  p. 

Remark  2. — The  mutes  and  liquids  have  certain  afiBnities  for  each  other, 
which  arise  mainly  from  a  similarity  in  the  position  of  the  organs  with  which 
they  are  produced.  Thus,  the  sound  of  m  most  readily  unites  with  the  sound 
of  p,  or  «  (=  z),  as  in  hemjp,  lamp,  stems,  hams/  the  sound  of  n  unites  most 
readily  with  t,  d,  s,  c,  or  aspirate  tli,  as  in  sen«,  end,  tens,  fence,  tenth;  also, 
rtg  with  th,  as  in  strength,  length;  the  sounds  of  I  and  r  readily  unite  with 
nearly  all  the  mutes,  as  in  elf,  melt,  vreld,  helch,  orb,  hearth,  ark,  large. 
These  affinities  will  explain  the  euphonic  changes  which  so  often  take  place 
in  derivation.     (See  37,  28.) 


ORTHOGRAPHY — ELEMENTARY  SOUNDS. 


17 


6.  Ti 

able  of 

Elementary  1 

Soi 

inds. 

Vocals. 

Sub  vocals. 

Aspirates. 

Correlatives. 

1.  a-le 

1. 

6-at 

1.  /-aith 

1. 

b-ow     =  p-o\e 

2.  f-a-r 

2. 

d-og 

2.  A-ome 

2. 

d-og     =  ^on 

3.  h-a-ll 

3. 

9-0 

3.  &r-k 

3. 

^-et      =  ^-ind 

4.  h-a-t 

4. 

J-oy 

4.  p-ine 

4. 

^A-is      =  th-\xmh 

6.  m-e 

5. 

l-ot 

5.  s-un 

5. 

J-ob      =  ch-in 

6.  m-e-t 

6. 

m-an 

6.  jJ-ake 

6. 

v-sm      =--/-an 

7.  f-z-ne 

7. 

n-o 

7.  ^/i-ink 

7. 

0-one     =  s-on 

8.  p-z-n 

8. 

so-ng 

8.  sh-one 

8. 

a-2-ure  =  sA-ut 

9.  g-o-ld 

9. 

ba-r 

9.  cA-url 

10.  m-o-ve 

10. 

^^-is 

10.  ■z/;A-en 

Liquids. 

11.  n-o-t 

11. 

v-at 

l-ong 

12.  m-w-te 

12. 

w-ise 

m-ane 

13.  p-t^-ll 

13. 

2;-one 

n-ame 

14.  c-w-p 

14. 

a-2;-ure 

so-ng 

15.  f-ou-nd 

15. 

y-es 

7. 

Exercise. 

r-ate 

1.  The  teacher,  uttering 


the  sound  of  a  in  name,  says,  "How 


many  heard  my  voice  f^'  Let  the  class  give  the  same.  The  teacher, 
again,  gives  the  sound  of/  in  fine  (not  the  name  JEJf,  but  the  sound 
alone).  "Do  you  hear  a  voice  sound,  or  a  whispering  sound f"  The 
class  utter  the  sound.  Adding  a  slight  vocality  to  the  sound  of  /, 
with  the  organs  in  the  same  position,  he  gives  the  sound  of  v. 
"How  many  hear  any  voice  sound  now?"  Eeturning  to  the  sound 
of/, — "Do  you  now  hear  any  voice  sound?  or  only  a  whispering  or 
breath  sound?"  Giving  the  sound  of  o  in  note, — "What  sound  do 
you  hear  now?"  In  the  same  manner  treat  the  other  elementary 
sounds,  till  all  are  readily  distinguished. 

2.  Tell  by  the  sound  ivhich  letters  in  the  following  promiscuous  exam- 
ples represent  vocals,  which  SUBVOCALS.  and  which  aspirates  : — 

And,  great,  made,  fame,  sad,  mete,  gave,  life,  voice,  six,  zebra, 
full,  bridge,  sup,  thin,  thought,  thine,  when,  whiffle,  sent,  gone, 
white,  lone,  fidget,  cup,  farm,  wine,  yes,  so,  knit,  type,  book,  crow, 
met,  line,  pin,  hat,  harp,  jug,  king,  long,  nut,  move,  lot,  queer, 
rind,  street,  sing,  mute,  suit,  vine,  sire,  exist,  sift,  form,  risk,  mart, 
park,  plum.  " 

3.  In  the  preceding  examples,  tell  ivhich  of  the  vocah  are  long,  and 

B  2* 


18  ENGLISH  GRAMMAK. 

which  SHORT ;  tell  which  of  tht  suhvocals  and  aspirates  are  CONTlKiy- 
ous,  and  which  explosive.  Select  three  words  having  two  aspirate 
sounds  united;  two  having  two  subvocal  mutes;  five  having  a  liquid 
and  a  subvocal  mute;  five  having  a  liquid  and  an  aspirate;  and  two 
having  two  liquids. 


LETTEES. 


-^ 


8.  The  Alphabet. 

1.  A  letter  is  a  character  used  to  represent  an  element- 
ary sound. 

2.  The  English  alphabet  contains  twenty-six  letters:  A,  a;  B,  b; 
C,  c;  D,  d;  E,  e;  F,  f;  G,  g;  H,  h;  I,  i;  J,  j;  K,  k;  L,  1;  M,  m; 
N,n;  0,o;  P,p;  Q,  q;  R,  r;  S,  s;  T,  t;  U,  u;  V,  v;  W,  w; 
X,  x;  Y,  y;  Z,  z.  . 

3.  The  name  of  a  letter  is  the  term  or  appellation  by  which  it  is 
known. 

Ex.— ^e,  De,  Aitch. 

4.  Th-Q  power  of  a  letter  is  the  elementary  sound  which  it  repre- 
sents. 

Ex. — The  sound  a  in  h-a-il,  h-a-nd. 

Remark. — Letters  cannot  be  too  carefully  distinguished  from  elementary 
sounds.  The  letter  is  an  arbitrary  mark  addressed  to  the  eye;  an  elementary 
sound  is  always  addressed  to  the  ear. 

9.  Classes  of  Letters. 

1.  Letters  are  divided, — 

(a.)  In  respect  to  their  forms,  into  capitals  and  small  letter's. 

(6.)  In  respect  to  the  sounds  they  represent,  into  voivels  and  consonants. 

Let  it  be  remembered  that  vowels  represent  vocals;  consonants,  both  sub- 
Tocals  and  aspirates. 

(c.)  In  respect  to  their  application  to  these  sounds,  into  perraanent, 
variable,  and  silent. 

2.  Capitals  are  used  for  the  sake  of  distinction;  small  letters 
constitute  the  principal  part  of  every  composition.     (See  u.) 

3.  The  various  styles  of  letters  are  the  Eoman,  the  Italic,  (f^ltl 

Sngl(js!),and^^«^^. 


ORTHOGRArHY — KULES   FOR  CAPITALS.  19 

10.  Exercise. 

1.  Tell  which  letters  are  vowels,  and  which  are  consonants,  in  the  following 
words: — 

Name,  war,  come,  peace,  tree,  fish,  good,  live,  old,  sad,  young,  wine, 
•said,  yet,  win,  new,  gay,  day. 

2.  Tell  which  of  the  following  letters  represent  vocals,  which  subvocals,  and 
which  aspirates: — 

a,  f,  g,  m,  c,  k,  d,  p,  o,  w,  s,  h,  y,  t,  r,  v,  x,  1,  e,  j. 

3.  Analyze  the  following  words  by  giving,  in  order,  the  elementary  sounds 
{not  the  names  of  the  letters) ;  tell  how  many  sounds  and  hoiv  many  letters 
each  has;  also,  what  letters  are  silent: — 

Mete,  laugh,  bought,  fought,  believe,  phthisic,  balm,  rough,  piece, 
beauty,  thought,  blight. 

Model. — M — e — t  =  mete: — three  sounds  and  four  letters.  The 
final  e  is  silent. 

4.  In  the  following  examples,  tell  what  words  contain  equivalents  of  a  in 
name;  of  a  in  ball;  of  a  in  fare;  of  e  in  mete;  of  e  in  end;  of  i  in  iron; 
of  i  in  ink;  of  o  in  go;  of  o  in  dot;  of  u  in  music;  of  u  in  pull;  of  u  in 
gun;  of  oil  in  plough,  and  of  oi  in  toil: — 

Grain,  air,  awl,  see,  bread,  symbol,  floor,  what,  new,  could,  son,  now, 
deign,  lair,  nor,  defraud,  brought,  awed,  key,  deaf,  been,  owed,  blue, 
should,  rough,  boy,  feign,  bear,  sea,  women,  coat,  lieutenant,  tough, 
hay,  there,  lief,  buy,  beaux,  pay,  perceive,  guile,  bouquet,  league,  rain, 
sought,  nay,  brief,  bee,  deceive,  instead. 

5.  Tell  what  words  in  the  following  list  contain  equivalents  to  any  sounds 
of  c,  f  g,  X,  z,  sh,  and  ch : — 

Kent,  phlegm,  tacks,  chagrin,  righteous,  phonography,  physician,  sac- 
rifice, champagne,  single,  exist,  ferocious,  partition,  nation,  phonetics, 
physics,  sit,  stand,  chamois,  quarrel,  join,  Xenophon,  passion,  phospho- 
rus, just,  oceanic,  jump,  beaux. 


11.  Rules  for  the  Use  of  Capitals  and  other  Letters. 

1.  EULE    I. — The  titles  of  books,  and  the  heads  of 

their  parts,  chapters,  sections,  and  divisions,  are  usually 

printed  in  capitals. 

Ex.— History  of  Philosophy;  Classes  of  Nouns;  Compound 
Relatives. 


20  ENGLISH   GEAMMAR. 

When  the  titles  of  books  are  quoted,  only  their  princi- 
pal words  should  begin  with  capitals. 
Ex.— Watts  on  the  Mind. 

Inscriptionis  on  signs  and  monuments  are  subject  to 
the  same  rule. 

2.  Rule  II. — The  first  word  of  every  entire  sentence, 
and  of  every  independent  expression  or  phrase,  should 
begin  with  a  capital. 

Ex. — Evil  communications  corrupt  good  manners.  The  words  of  the 
prophet. 

3.  EuLE  III. — The  first  word  of  any  dependent  part 

of  a  sentence  should  begin  with  a  capital, — 

(1.)  When,  to  give  prominence,  that^art  is  made  into  a  distinct 
line  or  paragraph 

Ex. — Nouns  are  divided  into, — 

Proper,  which  denote  individuals. 
Common,  which  denote  classes. 

(2.)  When  a  direct  quotation  is  introduced  so  as  to  form  a  sen- 
tence of  itself. 

Ex. — He  saith  unto  him,  Feed  my  sheep. 

(3.)  When  the  words  of  a  resolution  or  an  enactment  follow 
such  words  as  resolved,  be  it  enacted. 

Ex. — Eesolved,  That  a  committee  of  three,  &c.  Be  it  enacted,  That, 
&c. 

4.  Rule  TV. — Proper  names,  and  adjectives  derived 
from  proper  names,  should  begin  with  a  capital. 

Ex. — America,  American ;  Boston,  Bostonian. 

(a.)  When  the  proper  name  of  a  person,  a  place,  a  river,  or  a  mountain^ 
has  become  a  consolidated  compound  word,  only  one  capital  should  be 
used. 

Ex. — Northampton,  Southbridge,  Newcastle. 

When  the  parts  remain  separate,  each  should  begin  with  a  capital. 

Ex. — South  Berwick,  New  York,  Old  Saybrook,  In  many  compound 
names  usage  is  not  uniform.  Thus,  Newcastle,  used  as  the  name  of  about 
thirty  different  places  in  England,  Ireland,  and  British  America,  is  con- 


-t. 


ORTHOGRAPHY— RULES   FOR   CAPITALS.  21 

polidated ;  while  in  the  United  States,  in  about  twenty  different  instances, 
the  parts  are  separated,  thus: — New-Castle.  The  same  may  be  said  of 
New  Haven,  New  Market,  and  others. 

5.  Rule   Y. — Titles  of  lionor,   office,   respect,  and 

distinction,  usually  begin  with  a  capital. 

Ex. — Chief  Justice  Marshall,  His  Majesty,  General  Washington. 

(a.)  When  a  title  is  used  with  a  proper  name  merely  for  the  purpose 
of  explanation,  it  should  begin  with  a  small  letter. 

Ex. — The  apostle  Peter ;  The  prophet  Daniel. 

6.  Rule  YI. — All  appellations  of  the  Deity  should 
begin  with  a  capital. 

Ex.— God,  Jehovah,  The  Eternal,  The  Almighty. 

(a.)  The  personal  pronouns,  he,  his,  him,  thou,  thy,  and  thee,  when  they 
refer  to  the  Deity,  sometimes — especially  when  emphatic — begin  with  a 
capital.     This  usage  is  neither  universal  nor  uniform. 

7.  Rule  YII. — The  first  word  of  every  line  in  poetry 

should  begin  with  a  capital. 

8.  Rule  YIII. — The  words  I  and  O  should  be 
capitals. 

9.  Rule  IX. — Any  common  noun  used  to  denote  an 
object  personified,  or  an  object  to  be  made  specially 
emphatic,  should  begin  with  a  capital. 

Ex. — Cheered  with  the  grateful  smell,  old  Ocean  smiles. — Milton. 
In  the  Creed  the  same  distinction  is  properly  observed. — Harrison, 

10.  Rule  X. — Italics  are  used, — 

(1.)  To  direct  attention  to  an  emphatic  word,  phrase,  or  clause 
of  a  sentence. 

Ex. — Where  he  got  all  these  nothings  I  know  not. — Junius. 

This  tenuity  was  the  only  hard  word  that  I  heard  him  use  during  this 
interview. — BoswcWs  Johnson. 

(2.)  To  distinguish  words  borrowed  from  foreign  languages. 
Ex. — ^The  res  dura  et  regni  novitas  is  the  great  apology  of  Cromwell. — 
3facaulay. 

Remark. — In  the  Bible,  the  words  in  italics  are  those  supplied  by  the 
translators  to  explain  the  sense  of  the  original. 


22  ENGLISH   GKAMMAR. 

(3.)  The  names  of  ships,  newspapers,  and  periodicals,  and  paren- 
thetical words  and  phrases,  are  frequently  printed  in  italics. 

Ex. — A  full  report  of  his  speech  will  be  found  in  to-day's  Tribune. 
Chairman  (at  the  highest  pitch  of  his  voice),  "  Order !" 

Remark. — A  special  emphasis  is  indicated  by  the  use  of  small  capitals ;  as, 
*'  I  will  rear  my  structure  of  better  materials  than  painted  cards ;  in  a  word, 
I  will  write  history." —  Walter  Scott. 

Note. — In  writing,  italics  are  shown  by  a  single  line  drawn  under  the  word  j 
small  capitals,  by  two  lines. 

Full-faced  type  is  also  used  for  distinction. 


12.  Exercise. 

1.  Explain  by  rule  the  use  of  each  capital  in  the  following  examples : — 
Dr.  Kane  relates  many  curious  facts  respecting  the  Esquimaux. 

"  Lossing's  Field-Book  of  the  Kevolution"  gives  an  interesting  ac- 
count of  the  surrender  of  the  British  army  under  General  Burgoyne, 
to  General  Gates,  the  American  commander.  He  inquired,  "  For 
what  purpose  is  this  waste  ?"  and  I  could  make  no  reply.  The  eye 
of  the  Omniscient  is  ever  our  guard,  and  the  hand  of  the  Almighty 
our  support.  My  beauteous  deliverer  thus  uttered  her  divine  in- 
structions :  "  My  name  is  Eeligion."  In  the  agony  of  the  moment 
he  exclaimed,  "  0,  I  am  lost."  The  Austrians  were  defeated  in  the 
battle  of  Magenta.  President  Woolsey's  "International  Law." 
Michael  Angelo  had  nearly  reached  the  years  of  Dryden  when  he 
gave  the  "Last  Judgment"  to  the  world.  To  an  American  eye, 
European  life  presents  strange  contrasts. 

In  colleges  in  ancient  days, 

There  dwelt  a  sage  called  Discipline. 

With  eyes  upraised,  as  one  inspired. 

Pale  Melancholy  sat  retired. — Collins. 

2.  By  the  preceding  rules,  correct  the  erroneous  use  of  capitals  in  the 
following  examples,  and  insert  them  where  they  should  be  used: — 

new  york  is  the  largest  of  all  american  cities,  and  i  heard,  but  i 
understood  not ;  then  said  i,  "  o  my  lord,  what  shall  be  the  end  of 
these  things  ?"  huss,  the  reformer,  w^as  a  martyr  to  the  cause  which 
he  espoused,  have  you  visited  the  falls  of  niagara?  the  auditor 
\ias  sent  in  his  report,  the  english  custom  differs  from  ours.  They 
Met  on  the  Twenty-Fifth  of  novetnber,  in  paris,  to  form  a  New 


ORTHOGRAPHY — UNION   OF  VOWELS.  23 

Map  of  europe.    Hail,  holy  light,  offspring  of  heaven.     I  am.  My 
Dear  sir,  your  Obedient  Servant,  Jacob  trusty. 

the  lightnings  flash  along  the  sky, 

The  thunder  bursts  and  rolls  on  high ; 

Jehovah's  voice  methinks  I  hear 

amid  the  storm, 

as  riding  on  the  clouds  of  even 
'  he^Sprcads  ]iis  glory  o'er  the  heaven, 
but  wisdom  is  justified  of(  her  children. 


13.  Combination  of  Letters. 

1.  "When  two  or  more  letters  unite,  to  represent  a  union 
of  elementary  sounds,  they  form  a  combinaUon  of  letters. 

Ex. — Ou,  oi,  hi,  on,  no,  not,  breath,  breadth,  thrusts. 

2.  Sometimes  a  combination  of  elementary  sounds  is  represented 
by  a  single  letter ;  as,  ^  =  ae  {a  in  far,  and  e  in  me) ;  u  in  union  = 
yu;  0  in  one  =  wu. 

3.  Sometimes  a  combination  of  letters  represents  a  single  ele- 
mentary sound. 

Ex. — Th  in  this;  ti,  ci,  si,  ce,  in  martial,  mission,  official,  ocean;  oo,  ee, 
aa,  gg,  zz,  bb,  ff,  II,  tt,  in  door,  feet,  Isaac,  egg,  buzz,  ebb,  off,  call,  butt. 


14.  Union  of  Towels. 

1.  A  diphthong  is  the  union  of  two  vowels  in  one 
syllable. 

Ex. — Ou  in  sound,  oi  in  voice,  oy  in  joy,  ay  in  say. 

2.  A  proper  diphthong  is  one  in  which  both  vowels 
are  sounded. 

Ex. — Ou  in  thou,  oi  in  toil. 

3.  An  improper  diphthong  is  one  in  which  one  of  the 
vowels  is  silent. 

Ex. — The  a  in  heat,  oi  in  hail,  un  in  fruit. 


24  ENGLISH   GEAMMAR. 

4.  A  triplitliong  is  the  union  of  three  vowels  in  one 
syllable. 

Ex. — Eau  in  beauty,  iew  in  view,  ieu  in  lieu. 

6.  A  proper   triphthong  is  one   in  which    the   three 
vowels  are  sounded. 
Ex. —  Uoy  in  biLoy. 

6.  An  improper  triphthong  is  one  in  which  one  or  two 
of  the  vowels  are  silent. 
Ex. — Ea  in  heaviy,  ie  in  adieu* 

15.  Union  of  Consonants. 

1.  Two  or  more  consonants  are  said  to  unite  when  their 
sounds  coalesce. 

Ex. — Bl-Q-nd,  thr-ee. 

2.  If  they  represent  two  mutes,  these  must  be  similar ;  that  is,  both 
Bubvocals  or  both  aspirates. 

Ex. — Apt,  adze,  hats.    (See  5,  Eem.) 

3.  If  two  consonants  representing  dissimilar  mutes  come  together, 
the  sound  of  one,  usually  the  latter,  is  changed  to  its  correlative, 
though  the  letter  remains  the  same  (s,  6). 

Ex. — Bag,  bags,  pad,  pads,  =  bags,  pads,  placed  =  plac'c?  =  -plact.  In 
oath,  bath,  and  others,  th  aspirate  becomes  th  subvocal  in  the  plural,  and 
s  follows  the  rule.     Not  so  with  th  in  truths,  youths. 

4.  When  they  represent  two  liquids,  they  are  always  similar 
(5,  8,  9),  and  their  sounds,  with  some  exceptions,  readily  coalesce. 

Ex.-rr-Arm,  elm,  ham,  marl,  ^becomes  silent  after  m,  as  in  hymn, 
and  after  I,  as  in  kiln. 

5.  When  they  represent,  the  one  a  mute,  and  the  other  a  liquid, 
even  though  dissimilar,  their  sounds  readily  unite. 

Ex. — Spend!,  speni,  halt,  hart.     (See  5,  Eem.) 

6.  When  two  identical  letters  (double  letters)  come  together, 
whether  standing  for  mutes  or  liquids,  they  seldom  represent  more 
than  a  single  sound  (i3,  3). 

Ex. — "Egg,  hutt,  ebb,  whi/=  eg,  hut,  e6,  whi/. 


ORTHOGKAPIIY — SYLLABLES.  25 

IG.  Union  of  Towels  and  Consonants. 

Any  consonant  sound  may  unite  with  a  vowel  sound. 

Ex. — An,  no,  did,  csLlljfat,  vail,  rib,  job,  gig,  ham. 

17.  Exercise. 

1.  Point  out  the  voivel  combinations  in  the  following  words;  tell 
whether  the  diphthongs  are  proper,  or  improper: — 

Fear,  pear,  voice,  sound,  pierce,  receive,  Europe,  people,  view, 
adieu,  beauty,  though,  chief,  fail,  Csesar,  how,  sew,  gaol,  mail,  deal. 

2.  Point  out  the  consonant  combinations  in  the  following,  and  tell 
what  letters  are  identical,  and  what  are  changed  into  their  correlatives : — 

Birds,  blend,  apt,  capped,  clapped,  buzz,  mats,  heads,  beads, 
brought,  off,  skiff,  pass,  insist,  first,  faced,  round,  word,  gird,  gold, 
Bold,  bulb,  verb,  worm,  last,  craft,  compact,  acts. 

SYLLABLES. 
18.  Formation  of  Syllables. 

1.  A  syllable  is  a  letter  or  a  combination  of  letters 
the  sound  of  which  is  uttered  with  one  impulse  of  the  voice. 

Ex. — 3fat,  niat-ter,  ma-te-ri-al,  in-com-pre-hen-si-bil-i-ty. 

2.  The  essential  part  of  a  syllable  is  a  vowel. 

Note. — By  voiod  here  is  meant  a  vowel  sound,  whether  representecl  by  a 
•inglo  letter,  a  diphthong,  or  a  triphthong. 

3.  A  syllable  may  consist,-^ 
(a.)  Of  a  vowel. 

Ex. — J. -ere,  et-ther. 

(6.)  Of  a  vowel  with  one  or  more  consonants  prefixed. 

Ex. — jBa-sis,  6n-er,  three,  phthisis. 

(c.)  Of  a  vowel  with  one  or  more  consonants  affixed. 

Ex. — In,  elf,  inter-es<s,  earths. 

(d.)  Of  a  vowel  with  one  or  more  consonants  both  prefixed  and  affixed. 

Ex. — N-oo-n,  tr-u-th,  thr-u-sts. 

4.  A  vowel  is  said  to  be  modified  by  the  consonant  which  unites 
with  it.    Thus,  in  model,  o,  and  not  e,  is  modified  by  d. 


26  ENGLISH   GRAMMAE. 

5.  The  process  of  combining  elementary  parts  is  called  Synthe. 
sis,  and  that  of  separating  a  combination  into  its  elements  is  called 
Analysis. 

Note. — In  analyzing  a  syllable,  let  the  learner  tell, — (1.)  the  essential  part, 
that  is,  the  vowel  or  diphthong;  (2.)  the  consonant,  or  combination  (13)  of 
consonants,  which  is  prefixed  to  it;  (3.)  the  consonant,  or  combination  of  con- 
sonants, which  is  affixed  to  it. 


19.  Exercise. 

MODELS   FOR  ANALYZING   SYLLABLES. 

An  .  .i^2i  syllable  consisting  of  two  elements: — 

-4  ...  is  the  essential  element, — it  is  a  vowel.     (Give  its  sound.) 

w  ...  is  a  consonant,  and  represents  a  subvocal ;  it  is  affixed  to  a, 
which  it  modifies.     (Give  its  sound.) 

Break  is  a  syllable  consisting  of  three  parts : — 

ea .  .  .  is  the  essential  part, — it  is  a  diphthong  (why?),  improper 
(why?) ;  e  is  silent, — a  only  is  sounded.     (Give  its  sound.) 

^y  ,  .  is  a  union  (is)  of  two  consonants,  both  representing  sub  vocals, 
h  and  r,  which  are  prefixed  to  ea.  (Give  their  sounds  sepa- 
rately, then  together.) 

^  ...  is  a  consonant  representing  an  aspirate,  and  is  affixed  to  ea. 
(Give  its  sound.) 

1.  Analyze  the  following  syllables,  and  describe  each  element: — 
Kite,  dog,  numb,  boat,  friend,  truth,  day,  wax,  bat,  view,  sound, 

aid,  meet,  suit,  rude,  the,  think,  sit,  leave,  three,  bursts,  threats. 

2.  Form  syllables  by  prefixing  one  consonant  to  a,  ay,  ey,  ou,  ieu, 
y ;  TWO  or  more  consonants  to  e,  oo,  oe,  i,  ou,  oi,  ee,  ea,  ay,  ey ;  by 
affixing  ONE,  TWO,  or  three  consonants  to  any  five  of  the  above  vowels 
or  diphthongs. 

3.  Form  ten  syllables  in  which  one,  two,  or  more  consonants  shall  be 
prefixed  and  affixed  to  any  vowel  or  union  of  vowels. 

20.  Eules  for  the  Division  of  Words  into  Syllables. 

1.  Syllabication  is  the  proper  division  of  words  into 
syllables. 

2.  Rule  I. — Every  word  has  as  many  syllables  as  there 
are  distinct  vowel  sounds  heard  in  a  correct  pronunciation 

of  it. 


ORTHOGRAPHY — SYLLABLES.  27 

(a.)  When  two  vowels  come  together,  they  unite  (14)  in  one  syllable, 
if  in  the  pronunciatioii  only  one  vowel  sound,  single  or  combined  (14,  2, 
3),  is  heard. 

Ex. — Feast,  poorly. 

Otherwise,  they  separate  into  two  syllables. 

Ex. — Li-on,  pit-crile,  cooperate. 

(6.)  When  the  two  vowels  are  the  same,  the  separation  is  often  indi- 
cated by  a  diaeresis  (  "  )• 

Ex. — Preemption,  coordinate. 

2.  EuLE  II. — The  consonants,  singly  or  combined  (l5), 
are  either  prefixed  or  affixed  to  the  vowels  (l8,  3,  6,  c,  d) 
which  they  modify. 

(a.)  Primitive  Words. — (1.)  A  single  consonant  between  two  vowels 
is  joined  to  the  latter  when  the  former  is  long  (4). 
Ex. — Pa-per,  la-dy,  ci-pher. 
Otherwise,  it  should  be  joined  to  the  former. 
Ex. — Lep-er,  ep-ic,  ech-o. 

Note. — The  combinations  th,  ch,  tcTi,  pTi,  gh,  ah,  ng,  tch,  should  be  regarded 
as  single  consonants  (13,  3),  since  they  represent  only  one  elementary  sound, 
and  are  never  separated  when  thus  used. 

(2.)  Two  consonants  between  two  vowels  are  separated,  except 
when  a  mute  and  either  of  the  liquids  I  or  r  follow  a  long  vowel. 

Ex. — Cas-ter,  dam-per,  ap-ple,  am-ber  ;  peo-ple,  a-cre,  tri-Jle. 

(3.)  When  three  consonants  come  between  two  vowels,  the  last 
consonant— or  the  last  two  consonants,  when  they  are  a  mute,  and 
either  of  the  liquids  I  or  r — must  be  joined  to  the  latter  vowel. 

Ex. — Emp-ty,  am-ple,  strug-gle. 

{b.)  Derivative  Words. — The  prefix  should  be  separated  from  the 
root  in  all  cases,  except  as  in  Eule  II.  (1) ;  and  the  suffix  always  when  it 
forms  a  syllable. 

Ex. — Pre-fix,  suf-fix;  hut  pref-ace,  not  pre-face;  good-ness,  tru-ly. 

(c.)  Compound  Words. — Compound  words  are  separated  into  the 
primitive  or  derivative  words  which  compose  them,  and  these  are  divided 
by  the  preceding  rules. 

Caution. — In  writing,  never  divide  a  syllable  at  the 
end  of  a  line. 

Note.— Let  the  pupil  take  as  an  exercise  the  words  of  any  page  in  the 
Reader. 


28  ENGLISH   GKAMMAE. 

WORDS. 

21,  Formation  and  Classification  of  Words, 

1.  A  word  in  reference  to  its  sounds  consists  of  one  or 
more  syllables. 

Remark. — Written  words  are  used  to  represent  Loth  sounds  and  ideas.  As 
the  representatives  of  sounds,  they  are  classified  according  to  the  number  of 
syllables  they  contain. 

2.  A  word  of  one  syllable  is  called  a  monosyllable. 

Ex. — Boy,  pen,  tree. 

3.  A  word  of  two  syllables  is  called  a  dissyllable. 

Ex. — Na-ture,  faith-ful. 

4.  A  word  of  three  syllables  is  called  a  trisyllable. 

Ex. — Nat-u-ral,  faith-ful-ness. 

5.  A  word  of  four  or  more  syllables  is  called  a  poly- 
syllable. 

Ex. —  Un-nat-u-ral,  un-faith-ful-ness. 

6.  Accent  is  a  stress  of  the  voice  placed  upon  a  par- 
ticular syllable,  to  distinguish  it  from  other  syllables. 

7.  Every  word  of  more  than  one  syllable  has  one  of  its 
syllables  accented. 

8.  The  accented  syllable  may  be  either  tlie  first,  the  last,  or  a 
middle  syllable. 

Ex. — Du^ty,  be-long^,  pre-par^ing. 

9.  Some  words  have  a  primary  and  a  secondary  accent. 

Ex. — In^^defat^igable,  in/ ^ comprehend sihle. 

Similar  to  accent  is  the  emphasis  on  one  or  more  words  in  a 
sentence. 

Ex. — "  I  go,  but  I  return." 

Note. — In  analyzing  a  word  according  to  its  syllables,  it  should  be  sepa- 
rated by  (21,  1),  the  accented  syllable  pointed  out,  and  then  each  syllable 
analyzed  as  in  (19). 

10.  A  word  in  reference  to  its  significant  parts  must 
contain  a  root,  and  may  contain  a  prefix  or  a  suffix. 


ORTHOGRAPHY — SYLLABLES.  29 

11.  A  root,  or  radical,  is  either  a  word,  or  that  part  of 
a  word  which  is  modified  by  a  prefix  or  a  suffix. 

Ex. — Fair,  un-fair,  un-/air-ness. 

12.  A  prefix  is  that  part  of  a  word  which  is  placed 
before  the  root  to  modify  its  meaning. 

Ex. — 22e-turn,  pre-jjay,  wn-fit. 

13.  A  suffix  is  that  part  of  a  word  which  is  placed  after 
a  root  to  modify  its  meaning. 

Ex. — Heart-Zess,  child-hood,  good-ness. 

Note. — In  analyzing  a  word  according  to  its  significant  parts,  point  out 
the  root,  then  the  prefix  or  the  sufiix,  and  show  how  it  modifies  the  root. 

14.  Words  are  varied  by  prefixes,  suffixes,  or  by  some 
change  in  the  root. 

Ex. — Bond,  bond-s,  dear,  dear-es^,  she-goat,  man,  men,  write,  wrote. 

15.  The  variation  is  called, — 

Inflection,  when  it  affects  neither  the  part  of  speech, 
nor  the  essential  meaning  of  the  word,  but  merely  exhibits 
some  grammatical  property,  such  as  comparison,  number, 
tense,  &c. 

Ex. — Fair,  fair-est,  church,  church-es,  bond,  bownd. 

Derivation,  when  it  gives  rise  to  a  new,  though  related, 

meaning,  or  to  a  change  in  the  part  of  speech. 

Ex. — Fair,  un-Mr-ly,  ww-fair-wess.  Here  we  have  the  negative  of  the 
root,  and  three  different  parts  of  speech. 

Remark. — AVords  are  properly  called  declinable  only  as  they  admit  of 
inflection.  Thus,  farm-er-s  and  6e-neath  are  both  derivatives,  the  one  de- 
clinable, the  other  indeclinable. 

22.  Exercise. 

MODELS    FOR   ANALYZING   WORDS. 
(L)  In  reference  to  tbeir  sonnds. 

Faithfulness . .  is  a  trisyllable ;  repeat  (21,  4.) 

Faith is  the  accented  syllable;  repeat  (21,  6.) 

Jul  and  ness  .  are  unaccented  syllables. 

3* 


30  ENGLISH   GEAMMAR. 

Change  the  accent  first  Uiful,  then  to  ness;  restore  it  to  its  true 
place. 
Analyze  each  syllable  (i9). 

1.  Analyze  and  describe  the  following  words: — 

Beat,  said,  tree ;  friendship,  social,  himself,  stately ;  complaining, 
interpret,  indolence;  incessantly,  condemnation,  interdicting,  do- 
mesticate; consanguinity,  confederation,  impenetrable;  mispro- 
nunciation, incomprehensible,  indefatigable;  impenetrability;  in- 
comprehensibility. 

2.  Correct  the  accent  in  the  following  words: — 

LocaF,  indo^lence,memo^rable,  ig^noble,  frequent^ly,  lament^able, 
actu^al,  indispu^table,  immuta^ble,  retro^spect,  com^pletion,  late^ral. 

3.  Change  the  accent  in  the  following  words  to  the  second  syllable^  and 

give  their  meaning : — 

Au^gust,  con^jure,  dessert,  en^trance,  min^ute,  pres^ent,  proj^ect, 
in^valid. 

4.  Write  the  following  words  upon  your,  slate,  and  divide  them  into 
syllables,  marking  the  accented  syllable: — 

Conscience,  detecting,  inability,  indubitable,  commotion,  laborious, 
relate,  detestation,  infesting,  exemplary. 

Model. — Con^science. 

(2.)  In  reference  to  their  significant  parts. 

Impenitent  .  has  two  significant  parts. 

Penitent   .  .  is  the  root,  and  signifies  repenting. 

Im is  the  prefix  [in,  see  5,  Eem.  2),  and  signifies,  not. 

Hence,  Impenitent,  not  repenting. 

Point  out  the  roots,  prefixes,  and  suffixes  in  the  following  words: — 

Impenitent,  shapeless,  learning,  goodness,  insight,  unfair,  deface, 

begging. 


23.  Primitive,  Deriyative,  and  Compound  Words. 

1.  A  word  in  no  way  derived  from  a  root  is  a  primitiTO 
word. 

Ex. — Form,  harm. 


SPELLING.  31 

2.  A  word  formed  by  joining  to  a  root  a  prefix  or  a 
suffix,  to  modify  its  meaning,  is  a  derivative  word. 

Ex. — jRe-form,  liarm-/!e8s. 

3.  A  word  formed  by  uniting  two  or  more  entire  words 
is  a  eompound  word. 

Ex. — Inkstand,  schoolhouse. 

4.  The  parts  of  those  compounds  which  have  been  long  in  use 
are  generally  united  closely. 

Ex. — Nevertheless,  sunrise. 

In  others,  the  hyphen  (-)  is  used  to  separate  the  parts. 

Ex. — Labor-saving. 

24.  Exercise. 

1.  Tell  which  of  the  following  words  are  PRIMITIVE,  which  DE- 
EIVATIVE,  and  lohich  compound,  ayid  point  out  their  parts : — 

Bright,  fair,  told,  meek,  some,  playful,  joyless,  income,  bookstore, 
play-mate,  cloud-capped,  ink,  housetop,  fearful,  reform,  dismember, 
dreary. 

2.  Form  derivative  luordsfrom  the  following  primitives,  and  draiu  a 
line  under  the  added  syllable  or  letter : — 

Hope,  fear,  harm,  love,  care,  know,  peer,  ape,  weed,  cloud,  form, 
grade,  place,  joy,  truth,  poet,  fade,  weep,  laugh. 

Model. — HovEless. 

3.  Form  compound  luords  by  Joining  some  appropriate  ivord  to  each 
of  the  folloiving : — 

Air,  chest,  alms,  bank,  birth,  bill,  fire,  eye,  weed,  toll,  wood,  foot, 
work,  play,  land,  busy,  tree,  breeze. 

Model. — Aiv-jmmp. 

SPELLING. 

25.  Spelling  Defined. 

Spelling  is  the  art  of  representing  words  by  their  proper 
letters. 


32  ENGLISH   GEAMMAR. 

It  may  be  treated  of  under  the  three  classes  of  words,  primitive,  derivative, 
and  compound. 


PRIMITIVE  WORDS. 
26.  Rules  for  Primitives. 

Note. — The  spelling  of  primitive  words  should  be  learned  mainly  from 
the  dictionary  or  the  spelling-book.  The  following  are  the  most  obvious 
rules : — 

1.  Rule  I. — Monosyllables  ending  in/,  ?,  or  s,  preceded 

by  a  single  vowel,  double  the  final  consonant. 

Ex. — Stuff,  bell,  miss.  If,  of,  as,  gas,  was,  has,  yes,  is,  his,  this,  us,  ihv^, 
are  exceptions. 

2.  Rule  II. — Words  ending  in  any  other  consonant 
than  /,  I,  or  s,  do  not  double  the  final  letter. 

Ex. — Put,  rap,  on,  trim,  brag,  star.  Add,  odd,  ebb,  egg,  inn,  bunn,  err, 
burr,  purr,  butt,  buzz,  fuzz,  are  exceptions. 

DERIVATIVE  WORDS-PREFIXES. 
0      27.  Rules  for  applying  Prefixes. 

Note. — In  applying  prefixes  to  radicals,  certain  changes  often  take  place, 
to  render  the  sound  more  agreeable.  (5,  Rem.  2.)  These  changes  are  made 
according  to  the  following  rules : — 

1.  Rule  I. — Dropping  the  Final  Letter. — The 
final  letter  of  a  prefix  is  sometimes  omitted. 

Ex. — Cb-existent,  for  coii-existent ;  ant-arciic,  for  anti-arctic. 

2.  Rule  II. — Changing  the  Final  Letter. — The 
final  letter  of  a  prefix  is  often  changed  to  one  which  will 
harmonize  in  sound  with  the  initial  letter  of  the  root. 
(5,  Rem.  2.) 

Ex. — /m-pious,  for  in-pious. 

(a.)  The  final  letter  of  the  prefix  generally  becomes  the  same  as  the 
first  letter  of  the  root. 

Ex. — illimitable,  iV-radiate,  ac-cept,  op-pose. 

(6.)  The  principal  prefixes  which  undergo  this  change  are^ — 

Ad  =  ac,  af,  ag,  al,  an,  ap,  ar,  as,  at; 


ORTHOGRAPHY — DERIVATIVES.  33 


Con  =  CO,  cog,  com,  col,  cor ; 

En  =  em ; 

E    =ex,  ec,  ef; 

Dis  =dif,  di,' 


Ob      =-•  of,  oc,  op ; 

Sub     =  sue,  suf,  sug,  sup,  sur,  sus ; 

Syn     =sym,  syl; 

Trans  =  tran,  tra. 


DEEIVATIVE  WORDS— SUFFIXES. 
28.  Rules  for  applying  Suffixes. 

Note. — In  applying  suffixes,  the  final  letter  or  letters  of  the  radical  are  often 
changed.     Such  changes  are  made  according  to  the  following  rules : — 

1.  KuLE  I. — Doubling  the  Final  Letter. — On 
receiving  a  suffix  beginning  with  a  vowel,  the  final  eon- 
sonant  of  a  monosyllable,  or  of  any  word  accented  on  the 
last  syllable,  is  doubled,  if  the  root  ends  with  a  single 
consonant  preceded  by  a  single  vowel ;  otherwise  it  re- 
mains single. 

Ex. — Dig-m^r,  digging;  defer-ing,  deferring. 

So  appecd^,  becoming  in  the  derivative  appeV,  gives  appeVlant.  Not 
so  repair-ing,  defend-ing,  differ-ing.  Acquit,  following  the  rule,  gives 
acquitted,  since  qu  ■=■  kw. 

(a.)  In  many  words  ending  in  I,  as  travel,  libd,  cancel,  cavil,  chisel, 
counsel,  duel,  equal,  gravel,  marvel,  model,  pencil,  revel,  rival,  trammel,  tunnel, 
argil,  &c.,  some  double  the  I  on  adding  a  suffix  beginning  with  a  vowel, 
though  the  accent  is  not  on  the  last  syllable ;  others  follow  the  rule.  To 
these  words  add  worship,  bias,  kidnap;  worship-ping,  bias-sing,  kidnap-ping, 

(6.)  As  X  final  is  equivalent  to  ks,  it  is  never  doubled. 

Ex. — Mix,  mixed,  mixing. 

(c.)  When  in  the  derivative  word  the  accent  is  changed  to  a  preceding 
syllable  of  the  root,  the  final  letter  is  not  always  doubled. 

Ex. — From  prefer^,  we  have  preference,  and  preferable;  from  refer\ 
reference,  and  referable  or  referWible;  injer^,  in^ference,  in^ferable,  infer' - 
rible;  transfer',  transferable  or  transfer 'rible. 

The  derivatives  of  excel',  and  of  some  other  words,  though  the  accent 
is  changed,  still  double  the  final  letter. 

Ex. — Excel',  ex' cedent,  ex'cellence. 

2.  Rule  II. — Dropping  the  Final  Letter. — On 
receiving  a  suffix  beginning  with  a  vowel,  in  words  ending 
in  e  silent,  the  final  vowel  of  the  radical  is  dropped. 

c 


34  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Ex. — Jjore-ing,  loving;  love-ed,  loved. 

It  is  also  dropped  in  some  words  ending  in  y  and  i, 

Ex. — F elicity -ate,  felicitate ;  dei-zsm,  deism. 

(a.)  Contrary  to  the  general  rule,  the  final  e  is  retained  when  preceded 
by  c  or  g,  to  preserve  the  soft  sound  of  these  letters. 

Ex. — 'Pea.ce-able,  peaceable;  change-able,  changeable.  So,  also,  we  have 
singeing  and  swingeing,  to  distinguish  them  from  singing,  swinging. 

{b.)  The  final  letters  le,  when  followed  by  ly,  are  dropped. 
Ex. — Noble-/?/,  nobly. 

So,  also,  t  or  te  before  ce  or  cy. 

Ex. — Vagrant-c^/,  vagrancy  ;  prelate-ci/,  prelacy. 

(c.)  Words  ending  in  U  usually  drop  one  I  on  taking  an  additional 
syllable  beginning  with  a  consonant. 

Ex.— Skill-/w/,  skilful.  • 

(d.)  Sometimes  when  the  final  e  is  preceded  by  a  vowel,  it  is  dropped 
before  a  suffix  beginning  with  a  consonant. 
Ex. — True,  truly;  awe,  aufid. 
Sometimes  it  is  retained. 
Ex. — Hue,  rueful;  shoe,  shoeless. 

The  final  e  preceded  by  a  consonant  is  dropped  before  a  suffix  begin- 
ning with  a  consonant,  in  the  words  whole,  wholly;  judge,  judgment; 
abridge,  abridgment;  acknowledge,  acknowledgment. 

3.  Rule  III. — Changing  the  Final  Letter. — 
The  final  i/  of  a  root  is  generally  changed  to  iy  if  preceded 
by  a  consonant ;  otherwise  it  usually  remains  unchanged. 

Ex. — Happy-es^,  happiest;  duty-es,  duties;  day-s,  days. 

(a.)  Before  the  terminations  ly  and  ness,  some  words,  as  shy,  dry,  do 
not  change  the  final  y.  To  prevent  doubling  i,  the  y  is  not  changed 
when  the  suffix  begins  with  i. 

Ex. — Marry-in^f,  marrying. 

For  the  same  reason,  the  e  being  dropped  by  Eule  II.,  in  die,  lie,  tie, 
vie,  the  i  is  changed  to  y. 

Ex. —  Dying,  lying,  tying,  vying. 

(b,)  The/,  in  words  ending  inforfe,  is  often  changed  to  v,  when  the 
suffix  begins  with  a  vowel. 


ORTHOGRAPHY — COMPOUND  WORDS.        35 

Ex. — Life,  by  (S8,  2,)  Uf, — plural  liv-es,  lives. 

(c.)  From  lay,  pay,  say,  and  stay,  though  y  is  preceded  by  a  vowel,  we 
have  laid,  paid,  said,  and  staid.  So  from  day,  we  have  daily;  and  from 
gay,  gaily  and  gaiety;  though  better  written  gayly  and  gayety. 


29.  Exercise. 

1.  Change  by  rule,  and  prefix  ANTi  to  arctic;  CON  to  temporary, 
laborer,  extensive,  location,  mend,  mix,  mingle,  nomen,  relative; 
AD  to  scribe,  credit,  firm,  fluent,  legation,  rest,  point,  ply,  tempt ; 
IN  to  religious,  legal,  legible,  liberal,  mature,  noble,  perfect,  perti- 
nent, penitent,  potent,  prove,  relevant;  en  to  body,  broil;  OB  to 
position,  press,  cur,  fend;  sub  to  cession,  fix,  fumigation,  fusion, 
gest,  press,  render ;  syn  to  pathetic,  logistic ;  ex  to  centric,  flux ; 
Dis  to  fuse,  late. 

2.  Apply  the  preceding  rides  by  adding  ING,  ED,  or  ER,  to  beg,  sit, 
dig,  dim,  bed,  dog,  let,  bet,  prefer,  transfer,  forget,  dispel,  propel, 
befit,  control,  travel,  level,  counsel;  love,  compile,  receive,  leave, 
grieve,  confine,  define.  Add  able  to  peace,  change,  sale;  ly  to 
able,  disagreeable,  conformable,  idle,  noble;  ful  to  skill,  will; 
ES,  ED,  or  ING,  to  duty,  lily,  glory,  story,  history,  beauty,  beautify, 
amplify,  rectify. 

3.  Correct  the  folloiving,  and  explain  your  corrections : — 
Beding,   beting,  wifes,  debared,   abliorent,  alkalioid,   glory ous, 

citys,  fanciful,  tarriing,  carriing,  dutyful,  bountyful,  handsomeest, 
bloting,  fameous,  agreeabley,  incompatibley. 


COMPOUND  WOEDS. 

30.  Formation  of  Compound  Words. 

1.  Compound  words  usually  follow  the  orthography  of 
the  'primitive  words  of  which  they  are  composed. 

2.  In  compounds  which  are  closely  united  (23,  4),  full  and  all 
drop  the  final  I. 

Ex. — Handful,  careful,  fidfil,  always,  although,  idthal. 

But  in  those  compounds  which  are  merely  temporary,  the  II  is 
retained. 

Ex. — FiUlfaced,  chock-full,  all-wise. 


36  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

3.  When  possessives  are  compounded  with  other  words,  they  often 
drop  the  apostrophe. 

Ex. — Herdsman,  helmsman  (185,  11,  a). 

4.  Chilblain,  welcome,  welfare,  smdfuljil,  drop  one  I;  shepherd, 
wherever,  and  whosoever,  drop  an  e;  and  wherefore  and  therefore 
assume  an  e. 


31.  Exercise. 

1.  Correct  the  errors  in  the  following  examples,  and  give  the  rule  by 
which  each  correction  is  made : — 

Wil,  kniting,  frized,  clif,  peacable,  bur,  stil,  manumited,  buieth, 
occuring,  differring,  begg,  knel,  bels,  mobb,  bigotted,  whigism,  gass, 
coquetish,  swiming,  cryeth,  spyed,  shily,  shuned,  veryest,  maiest, 
interruptting,  spoonful,  al-powerful,  allways,  somthing,  stilyards, 
defering,  prevailling. 

Questions. — What  is  Grammar?  What  is  English  Grammar?  To  what 
does  it  relate  ?  Into  how  many  parts  is  it  divided  ?  Of  what  does  Ortho- 
graphy treat?  Etymology?  Syntax?  Prosody?  What  is  an  elementary 
sound?  How  many  elementary  sounds  are  there  in  the  English  language? 
How  are  they  divided  ?  Of  what  do  vocals  consist  ?  Subvocals  ?  Aspirates  ? 
How  are  vocals  divided  ?  What  is  the  long  sound  ?  The  short  ?  How  are 
the  subvocals  divided?  Describe  the  continuous;  the  explosive;  the  semi- 
vocals.  Which  aspirates  are  breathings  ?  How  formed  ?  What  is  said  of 
the  remaining  subvocals  and  aspirates  ?  Give  the  pairs  called  correlatives  or 
cognates.  What  are  the  first  four  pairs?  The  remaining  ones?  Why  are 
they  called  mutes?  Give  the  liquids.  Why  so  called?  Pronounce,  in  order, 
the  words  in  the  table,  then  give  the  sound  of  the  element  in  Italics.  What 
is  a  letter?  How  many  letters  are  there  in  the  English  alphabet?  What 
is  the  name  of  a  letter?  The  power?  How  are  letters  divided,  in  respect 
to  form, — sound, — application f  How  are  capitals  used?  What  letters  are 
called  vowels  ?  Consonants  ?  Repeat  the  rules  for  the  use  of  capitals.  Italics. 
When  have  we  a  combination  of  letters  ?  What  is  a  diphthong  ?  A  proper 
diphthong  ?  An  improper  diphthong  ?  A  triphthong  ?  A  proper  triphthong  ? 
An  improper  triphthong?  When  are  two  consonants  said  to  unite?  What 
may  unite  with  a  vowel  sound  ?  What  is  a  syllable  ?  How  many  syllables 
has  every  word?  How  are  the  consonants  applied?  Repeat  the  Caxition. 
Divide  the  words  in  the  first  part  of  Exercise  12  into  syllables.  Of  what 
does  a  word,  when  considered  in  reference  to  its  sound,  consist?  What  is  a 
word  of  one  syllable  called?  Of  two  syllables?  Of  three  syllables?  Of 
four  or  more  syllables?  What  is  accent?  What  words  have  an  accent? 
Which  may  the  accented  syllable  be  ?  Give  an  example  of  a  primary  and  a 
secondary  accent.  Mention  the  significant  parts  of  a  word.  What  is  a  root? 
A  prefix  ?  A  suffix  ?  Define  a  primitive  word.  A  derivative.  A  compound. 
Define  spelling.  Give  the  rules  for  spelling  primitive  words.  Give  the  rules 
for  applying  prefixes,    Vox  suflaxes.    For  compound  words. 


ETYMOLOGY — PARTS   OF  SPEECH.  37 


ETYMOLOGY. 

32.  Definitions. 

1.  Etymology  treats  of  the  classification,  the  derivation, 
and  the  various  modifications  of  words. 

2.  A  word  is  the  sign  of  an  idea,  and  is  either  spoken 
or  written. 

33.  Classes  of  Words. 

1.  According  to  their  meaning  and  use,  words  are  divided 
into  eight  classes,  called  Farts  of  Speech, 

Remarks. — Words  are  divided,  according  to  their  sounds  in  pronunciation, 
into  vionosyllahles,  dissyllables,  trisyllables,  and  polysyllables  (21) ;  according 
to  their  significant  parts,  into  primitive,  derivative,  and  compound  (23).  So 
far  as  the  treatment  of  roots,  prefixes,  and  sufiixes  pertains  to  the  simple  union 
of  syllables  into  complete  words,  it  belongs  to  Orthography.  It  becomes,  how- 
ever, a  department  of  Etymology  when  the  modifying  influence  of  the  sig- 
nificant elements  is  considered. 

2.  Words  which  vary  their  forms  in  construction  are  called  de- 
clinable.   Those  which  do  not  vary  them  are  indeclinable, 

Ex. — Friend,  friend-s;  love,  lov-ecZ  (declinable) ;  but,  as,  upon  (inde- 
clinable). 

PARTS  OF  SPEECH. 
34.  Parts  of  Speech  defined. 

1.  In  English,  there  are  eight  parts  of  speech, — the 
Nowij  the  Adjeciivey  the  Pronoun,  the  Verb,  the  Adverb, 
the  Preposition,  the  Conjunction,  and  the  Interjection, 

2.  A  noun  is  the  name  of  an  object. 

Ex. — Fruil,  Henry,  Boston. 


38  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

The  word  noun  is  derived  from  the  Latin  "nomen,"  a  vame.  All  words 
which  are  the  names  of  2i€r8on8,  animals,  places,  or  things,  material  or  imma- 
terial, are  nouns. 

3.  An  adjective  is  a  word  used  to  limit  or  qualify  a  noun. 

Ex. — Good,  faithful,  this,  some. 

Adjective  (derived  from  the  Latin  "adjeetus,"  added  to,  i.e.  to  a  noun) 
is  a  term  applying  to  a  large  class  of  words  which  are  added  to  nouns  to  ex- 
press their  qualities  or  to  define  them. 

Ex. —  Woi^thy  citizens ;  this  book. 

Those  words  which  are  united  to  nouns  answering  such  questions  as 
Whatf   Wliat  kindf  How  manyf  are  adjectives. 

4.  A  pronoun  is  a  word  which  takes  the  place  of  a 
noun. 

Ex. — I,  he,  you,  who. 

/KJie  word  pronoun  (derived  from  the  Latin  "pro/'/'^'*>  ^^^1  "nomen,"  a 
name)  applies  to  a  small  number  of  different  words;  yet  any  noun  may  be 
represented  by  a  pronoun.  The  noun,  the  adjective,  and  the  pronoun  are 
intimately  connected  :  the  first  is  the  name  of  an  object;  the  second  expresses 
the 2^>'opertie8  of  an  object;  the  third  may  take  the ^Zace  of  the  first. 

5.  A  verb  is  a  word  which  expresses  being,  action,  or 
state. 

Ex. — Be,  read,  sleep,  is  loved. 

Nothing  can  be  affirmed  without  a  verb.  The  term  is  derived  from  the 
Latin  *'verbum,"'  the  word,  i.e.  the  important  word:  it  designates  a  large 
class  of  words. 

6.  An  adverb  is  a  word  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of 
a  verb,  an  adjective,  a  participle,  or  another  advei^b. 

Ex. —  Quickly,  first,  far. 

Adverb  (from  the  Latin  "ad"  and  "verbum,"  added  to  a  verh)  is  the  narao 
given  to  those  words  which  are  added  to  verbs,  adjectives,  or  other  adverbs, 
to  denote  time,  place,  manner,  &q. 

7.  A  preposition  is  a  word  used  to  show  the  relation 
between  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  and  some  other  word. 

Ex. — From,  upon,  on,  with. 

This  part  of  speech  includes  a  small  list  of  words  which  are  used  to  denote 


ETYMOLOGY — PARTS   OF   SPEECH — NOUNS.  39 

the  relations  of  place,  time,  cause,  manner,  pro^ierty,  quality,  &Q.  It  is  called 
a  preposition  (from  the  Latin  "pras,"  before,  and  "positio,"  a  placing;  a 
placing  before)  from  the  circumstance  of  its  being  commonly  placed  before 
the  object  with  which  it  is  always  associated. 

8.  A  conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  connect  sentences^  or 
the  parts  of  sentences. 

Ex. — And,  hut,  or. 

The  conjunction  includes  but  a  small  number  of  words,  which  are  used  to 
join  the  parts  of  a  sentence:  it  is  derived  from  the  Latin  " conjunctus," 
joined  together. 

9.  An  interjection  is  used  to  express  some  strong  or 
sudden  emotion  of  the  mind. 

Ex.— 0/  ala^f 

The  term  interjection  (from  the  Latin  "interjectus,"  ihroton  between)  is 
applied  to  a  few  words  that  do  not  enter  into  the  structure  of  a  sentence,  but 
are  thrown  in  at  pleasure. 

10.  The  noun,  the  pronoun,  the  adjective,  the  verb,  and 
the  adverb  are  declinable;  the  rest  are  indeclinable. 


NOUNS. 
35.  Definition  and  Distinctions, 

1.  A  noun  is  the  name  of  an  object. 

Ex. — House,  tree,  Boston,  goodness. 

Remark. — The  word  object,  as  here  used,  should  be  carefull3^  distinguished 
i'rom  the  same  term  employed  in  Syntax  to  denote  the  complement  of  the 
transitive  verb.  It  here  denotes  every  species  of  existence,  material  or 
immaterial,  which  may  be  considered  independently  or  alone;  and  is  opposed 
to  the  term  attribute,  which  always  represents  something  dependent  upon,  be- 
longing to,  or  inherent  in,  an  object.  An  attribute,  when  regarded  as  an  object 
to  the  mind,  that  is,  when  abstracted  from  that  to  which  it  belongs,  becomes 
an  object  of  itself.  The  name  of  such  an  attribute  is  a  noun,  and  is  usually 
derived  from  the  word  denoting  the  attribute. 

Ex. — Good,  (jood-ness;  bright,  hriglit-ness. 

2.  AVlienever  a  word,  a  syllable,  a  letter,  or  a  symbol  of  any  kind 
is  spoken  of  as  an  object,  it  is  a  noun. 

Ex. —  We.  is  a  personal   prononn.     Un  is  a  prefix.     Ji  is  a  vowel. 
4-  is  the  si'^n  of  addition.     ,  is  a  comma. 


40  ENGLISH   GEAMMAE. 

8.  So,  when  a  phrase,  or  a  clause  of  a  sentence,  is  used  to  denot« 
an  object,  it  becomes  a  noun. 

Ex. — To  see  the  sun  is  pleasant.     That  you  have  uronged  me  dotli  appear 
in  this. 

Remark. — The  noun  is  often  called  a  substantive.     All  phrases  or  clauses, 
when  used  as  nouns,  and  even  pronouns,  are  called  substantives. 


36.  Proper  and  Common  Nouns. 

1.  Nouns  are  divided  into  two  classes,— proper  and 
common. 

2.  A  proper  noun  is  the  name  of  an  individual  object. 

Ex. — James,  Erie. 

Such  plural  names  as  Romans,  Alps,  Azores,  are  commonly  con- 
sidered proper  nouns,  because  a  whole  group  is  regarded  as  an 
individual. 

3.  A  Gommon  noun  is  a  name  which  applies  to  each 
individual  of  a  class  of  objects. 

Ex. — 3fan,  boy,  house. 

4.  As  a  proper  noun  denotes  simply  an  individual  by  itself,  when- 
ever it  is  made  to  represent  an  individual  as  belonging  to  a  class,  it 
becomes  a  common  noun. 

Ex.-—"  He  is  the  Cicero  of  his  age,"  i.e.  a  distinguished  orator. 

Still,  when  the  same  name,  as  Thomas,  happens  to  be  given  to  several  per- 
sons, but  to  each  individually  by  itself,  it  is  as  truly  a  proper  name  as  though 
it  had  been  given  to  one  alone. 

5.  Common  nouns,  on  the  contrary,  may  become  proper,  when, 
by  personification  or  special  use,  the  object  named  is  regarded  as 
an  individual. 

Ex.— O  Justice,  thou  art  fled  to  brutish  beasts,  and  men  have  lost  their 
reason.     The  Common.     The  Park. 

6.  Under  the  head  of  common  nouns  are  commonly  reckoned 
collective,  abstract,  and  verbal  nouns. 

7.  A  collective  noun  is  one  which,  in  the  singular,  denotes  more 
than  one  object. 

Ex. — Army,  family,  flock. 


ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS.  41 

8.  An  abstract  noun  is  the  name  of  a  quality  or  of  an  action,  con- 
sidered apart  from  the  object  to  which  it  belongs. 

Ex. — Goodness,  virtue,  wisdom,  movement. 

9.  A  verbal  noun  is  a  participle  used  as  a  noun. 

Ex. — He  was  convicted  of  stealing. 

Remark. — The  ivjinitive  is  a  kind  of  verbal  noun :  as,  "  To  see  the  sun  is 
pleasant." 

10.  Nouns  which  denote  substance  or  kind,  without  reference  to 
an  individual,  are  common  nouns. 

Ex. —  Wood,  q7'ass,  music,  earth,  algebra. 

37.  Exercise. 

1.  Tell  which  of  the  following  words  designate  objects,  and  which 
properties;  then  select  the  nouns: — 

Horse,  old,  good,  peach,  vine,  heavy,  hard,  strong,  hill,  star, 
empty,  ocean,  hilly,  wright,  William,  European,  engine,  road,  stile, 
rose,  upright,  smoke,  balloon,  oyster,  sea,  chariot,  wild,  hungry, 
farm,  evil. 

2.  Select  the  nouns  in  the  following  sentence: — 

As  soon  as  the  sun  was  seen  coming  over  the  hills,  the  farmer 
aroused  the  laborers  from  slumber,  who,  with  their  scythes  on  their 
shoulders,  and  pitchforks  in  their  hands,  marched  gayly  to  the  field 
to  begin  the  labors  of  the  day. 

3.  Tell  ivhich  of  the  following  nouns  are  common,  md  which  are 
proper: — 

Posterity,  virtue,  Eome,  tea,  Nero,  Cicero,  Germany,  Paris,  pomp, 
sunshine,  meadow,  Pekin,  gulf,  Medici,  astronomy,  Darius,  father, 
calico,  London,  dungeon,  district,  Japan. 

4.  Tell  which  of  the  following  comvfion  nouns  are  abstract,  which  are 
collective,  and  which  are  verbal: — 

Army,  tasting,  goodness,  heat,  harmless,  rising,  sailing,  wisdom, 
flock,  wonder,  teaching,  energy,  frankness,  freedom,  multitude, 
teething,  shutting,  dulness,  company. 

5.  Change  thefolloioing  names  of  properties  into  abstract  nouns: — 
Good,  cheerful,  diligent,  rapid,  dark,  strong,  heavy,  lovely,  bril- 
liant, beautiful,  flaming,  brave,  swift,  solid,  easy.    Thus,  goo&ness. 

4* 


42  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

6.  Write  the  names  of  fifteen  objects  in  this  room.    Select  all  the 
nouns  from  page  —  in  your  Reader.     [Let  the  teacher  assign  the  page. ) 

7.  Fill  the  blanks  in  the  following  examples  with  nou7is  of  your  own 
selection : — 

is  short.    are  strong.    have  fallen.    — 


IS 

a  quadruped.   were  destroyed.   will  decay.  will 

rise  at  six  o'clock.   is  the  king  of  beasts.   was  the  father 

of  his  country.   was  a  tyrant.    were  overthrown  in  the 

Eed  Sea.    mourned  for  Absalom.    shine  at  night. 

38.  Properties  of  Nouns. 

To  nouns  belong  the  properties  of  persoUj  number ^  gerv- 
der,  and  case. 

39.  Person  of  Nouns. 

1.  Person  is  that  property  of  a  noun  or  a  pronoun 
which  shows  the  relation  of  the  speaker  to  the  object 
(»5,  Rem.)  spoken  of. 

2.  The  object  spoken  of  may  be — (1)  the  speaker  himself  (2)  the 
person  spoken  to,  or  (3)  a  party  neither  speaking  nor  spoken  to, 
but  merely  spoken  of.    Hence, — 

3.  There  are  three  persons, — thefirsty  the  second,  and  the 
third, 

4.  ThQ  first  person  denotes  the  speaker. 

Ex. — I,  John,  saw  these  things. 

Remark. — Observe,  here,  that  "  P'  denotes  the  one  spoken  of,  as  well  as  the 
one  speaking. 

5.  The  second  person  denotes  the  person  spoken  to. 

Ex. — Children,  obey  your  parents. 

Here^^e  or  you  understood,  meaning  cliildren,  denotes  the  party  spoken  to, 
and  also  that  spoken  of. 

6.  The  third  person  denotes  the  person  or  thing  spoken 
of. 

Ex. — Thomas  did  not  come.     The  harvest  is  abundant. 
Here  Thomas  and  harvest  represent  merely  the  party  spoken  of. 


ETYMOLOGY — PERSON   OF   NOUNS.  43 

Remark.— The  first  or  the  second  person  as  such,  alone,  is  never  repre- 
sented in  any  sentence.  Yet  every  sentence  presupposes  a  first,  a  second,  and 
a  third  person.  It  i^  the  last  of  these  only  which  rightfully  demands  ex- 
pression. The  third  person  viust  be  expressed.  Hence,  when  the  first  or  the 
second  becomes  also  the  third,  it  is  for  that  reason  that  it  claims  a  place  in 
the  sentence.  But  the  mere  name  of  the  speaker  or  the  hearer  would  repre- 
sent him  only  as  the  party  spoken  of.  It  requires,  therefore,  the  word  /or 
you  to  represent  him  both  as  speaking  and  spoken  of  or  spoken  to  at  the 
same  time. 

7.  A  noun  in  the  first  or  the  second  person  is  never  used  as  the 
subject  or  the  object  of  a  verb,  but  may  be  put  in  apposition  with 
either,  for  the  purpose  of  explanation. 

Ex.— I,  Paul,  beseech  you.    The  salutation  of  me,  Paul. 

8.  The  names  of  inanimate  objects  are  in  the  second  person 
when  the  objects  to  which  they  apply  are  spoken  to.  Objects  thus 
addressed  are  personified,  and  are  treated  as  though  they  were  actual 
hearers. 

Ex. — And  I  have  loved  thee,  Ocean. 


40.  Exercise. 

1,  Tell  the  person  of  the  nouns  in  the  following  sentences: — 

Nero  was  a  tyrant.  Children,  obey  your  parents.  Philip,  thou 
art  a  man.  Delays  are  dangerous.  His  praise,  ye  brooks,  attune. 
The  ferryman  took  us  safely  across  the  river.  Keep  thy  heart  with 
all  diligence.  King  Philip  was  the  last  of  the  Wampanoags.  "  Let 
my  country  be  thine,"  said  his  preserver.  Seest  thou  a  man  dili- 
gent in  his  business  ?  he  shall  stand  before  kings.  Babylon,  how 
art  thou  fallen !    I,  Daniel,  was  grieved  in  my  spirit. 

2.  Fill  the  blanks  in  the  following  expressions;  tell  the  person  of  the 
noun  or  the  pronoun  inserted: — 

was  executed  for  murder.    art  the  man.    The  lady 

lost purse  and  all contents. are  willing  to  re- 
main.     has  strangely  ended.    delight  in  surf  bathing. 

The  father  called sons  and daughters  around . 

The  duke  was  esteemed  for  uprightness,  and  the  duchess 

beloved  for  kindness.    Art  a  spirit  of  earth  or  air  ? 

wast  wrong  to  urge  me  so. 


44  ElfGLISH   GRAMMAK. 


4:1.  Number  of  Nouns. 

1.  Nnmber  is  that  property  of  a  noun  (or  a  pronoun) 
which  distinguishes  one  object  from  more  than  one. 

2.  Nouns   have   two  numbers, — the   singular  and  the 
plural, 

3.  The  singular  number  denotes  but  one  object. 
Ex. — Horse,  river,  nation. 

4.  The  plural  denotes  more  than  one  object. 

Ex. — Horses,  rivers,  nations. 


42.  Regular  Formation  of  the  Plural. 

1.  The  plural  of  nouns  is  regularly  formed, — 

(a.)  By  adding  s,  when  the  singular  ends  with  a  sound 
that  can  unite  or  coalesce  with  s, 
Ex. — Book,  books;  tree.,  trees. 

(b.)  By  adding  es,  when  the  singular  ends  with  a  sound 
that  cannot  coalesce  with  s. 
Ex. — Box,  boxes;  church,  churches. 

2.  When  es  is  added,  s  has  the  sound  of  z. 
Ex. — Fox,  foxes;  branch,  branches. 

When  s  only  is  added,  it  has  the  sound  of  z  when  it  unites  or 
coalesces  with  a  vowel. 

Ex. — Folio,  folios  ;  flea,fieas. 

It  follows  the  rule  (i5,  3)  for  the  combination  of  consonants 
when  it  follows  a  consonant ;  that  is,  it  is  «  aspirate  when  it  unites 
with  an  aspirate. 

Ex. — Hat,  hats;  cap,  caps;  surf,  surfs;  clock,  clocks. 

It  is  s  subvocal  (or  z)  when  it  follows  a  subvocal. 

Ex. — Lad,  lads;   log,  logs;   ball,  balls;  farm,  farms ;  fan,  fans ;   war, 


ETYMOLOGY — NUMBER.  45 

3.  The  s  or  es  adds  a  syllable  when  it  does  not  coalesce  with  the 
final  syllable  of  the  singular. 

Ex. — Church,  church-es;  race,  rac-es;  cage,  cag-es. 
The  s  or  es  does  not  add  a  syllable  when  it  coalesces  with  the  final 
syllable. 

Ex. —  Work,  ivorks;  echo,  echoes. 

43.  Irregular  Formation  of  the  Plural. 

1.  When  the  final  s,  contrary  to  the  rule  (42,  2),  is  subvocal, 
after  the  aspirate  sounds /,/(?,  the /must  be  changed  (i5,  3)  into 
its  correlative  v. 

Ex. — Loaf,  loaves;  life,  lives;  sheaf,  sheaves;  thief,  thieves. 

When  s  is  aspirate,  as  in  the  plural  of  dwarf,  brief,  scarf,  reef, 
chief,  grief,  kerchief,  handkerchief,  gulf  surf  turf,  serf,  proof,  hoof, 
roof,  safe,  fife,  strife,  the  /  is  not  changed.  Staff,  when  meaning  a 
stick,  has  staves  for  its  plural ;  when  meaning  a  set  of  officers,  it 
has  staffs.  The  plural  of  wharf,  in  the  United  States,  is  wharves ; 
in  England,  wharfs. 

2.  The  s  added  to  th  aspirate  is  also  subvocal  (except  in  tricth. 
youth,  and,  it  may  be,  a  few  other  words),  and  would  cause  a  similar 
change  in  the  orthography  of  the  plural,  were  not  the  correlative 
(6)  also  represented  by  th. 

Ex. — Oath,  oaths;  bath,  baths. 

8.  Most  nouns  ending  in  o  preceded  by  a  consonant,  add  es,  not- 
withstanding s  alone  w^ould  coalesce  with  o  (42, 1). 
Ex. — Cargo,  cargoes. 

Zero,  canto,  grotto,  quarto,  junto,  duodecimo,  octavo,  solo,  portico, 
tyro,  halo,  piano,  memento,  add  only  s.  Yet  by  some  writers  es  is 
added. 

Nouns  ending  in  0  preceded  by  a  vowel,  follow  the  general  rule. 

Ex. — Folio,  folios ;  cameo,  cameos. 

4.  Nouns  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  consonant  (28,  3),  change 
y  into  ies. 

Ex. — Glory,  glories;  mercy,  mercies. 

Formerly  these  words  in  the  singular  ended  in  ie.    Their  plurals 
were  then  formed  regularly. 
Ex. — Glorie,  tnercie. 


46  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Nouns  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  vowel,  form  the  plural  regularly. 
Ex. — Day,  days;  key,  keys. 

5.  The  following  plurals  are  very  irregular : — 

Man,  men;  woman,  women;  ox,  oxen;  goose,  geese;  child,  children;  foot, 
feet;  louse,  lice;  mouse,  mice;  cow,  formerly  kine;  tooth,  teeth. 

6.  Some  nouns  have  both  a  regular  and  an  irregular  plural ;  but 
the  two  forms  have  usually  different  significations. 

Ex. — Brother,  brothers  (of  the  same  family) ;  brethren  (of  the  same 
society) ;  die,  dies  (stamps) ;  dice  (cubes  used  in  gaming) ;  genius,  geniuses 
(men  of  genius) ;  genii  (spirits) ;  index,  indexes  (tables  of  reference) ; 
indices  (signs  in  algebra) ;  pea,  peas  (distinct  seeds) ;  pease  (quantity) ; 
penny,  pennies  (coins) ;  pence  (a  sum,  or  value). 

7.  Names  of  substances,  and  most  abstract  nouns,  commonly 
have  no  plural  form. 

Ex. — Gold,  cider,  flax,  milk,  tar,  goodness,  darkness. 

When  different  kinds  of  the  substances  are  referred  to,  the  plural 
form  is  used. 

Ex. —  Waters,  wines,  teas. 

8.  In  compound  words,  if  the  word  denoting  the  principal  idea 
is  placed  first,  it  is  changed  to  form  the  plural. 

Ex. — Court-martial,  courts-martial;  cousin-german,  cousins-german ; 
hanger-on,  hangers-on. 

But  if  the  principal  word  is  placed  last,  the  final  word  is  changed. 

Ex. — Handful,  hand-fuls. 

Both  parts,  being  (apparently)  equally  prominent,  are  changed  in 
man-servant,  woman-servant,  and  knight-templar. 

Ex. — Men-servants,  women-servants,  knights-templars. 

9.  Letters,  marks,  figures,  and  signs  are  pluralized  by  adding  's. 
Ex.— The  s's;  the  I's;  the  *'s;  the  9's;  the  +  's. 

10.  When  other  parts  of  speech  are  used  as  nouns,  their  plurals 
are  formed  regularly. 

Ex.— The  ifs  and  buts.  The  whys  and  wherefores.  At  sixes  and 
sevens. 

11.  Many  nouns  from  foreign  languages  retain  their  original 
plurals. 


ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS — NUMBER.  47 

Examples. — Antithesis,  antitheses;  arcanum,  arcana;  automa- 
ton, automata;  axis,  axes;  bandit,  banditti;  basis,  bases;  beau, 
beaux ;  cherub,  cherubim ;  criterion,  criteria ;  crisis,  crises  ;  datum, 
data;  desideratum,  desiderata;  encomium,  encomia;  effluvium, 
effluvia;  erratum,  errata;  ellipsis,  ellipses;  focus,  foci;  form.ula, 
formulae;  genus,  genera;  hypothesis,  hypotheses;  madame,  mes- 
dames ;  magus,  magi ;  memorandum,  memoranda ;  medium,  media ; 
minutia,  minutiae;  metamorphosis,  metamorphoses;  monsieur,  mes- 
sieurs; nebula,  nebulae;  phenomenon,  phenomena;  radius,  radii; 
Beraph,  seraphim ;  stimulus,  stimuli ;  stratum,  strata ;  stamen,  sta- 
mina ;  vortex,  vortices. 

44.  Plural  of  Proper  Names. 

1.  Single  Names. — The  proper  name  of  an  individual  object 
has  no  plural. 

2.  When  several  of  the  same  name  or  family  are  spoken  of 
together,  the  name  takes  the  plural  form. 

Ex. — The  Tudors;  The  twelve  Cccsars. 

3.  So,  also,  the  proper  names  of  races,  communities ,  and  nations, 
are  plural. 

Ex. — The  Indians;  The  Jesuits;   The  Bomans. 

4.  The  plurals  of  proper  names  are  formed,  as  a  general  rule, 
according  to  the  analogy  of  common  names. 

Ex. — Canada,  Canadas;  Jew,  Jews;  Ptolemy,  Ptolemies. 

5.  Complex  Names. — When  two  or  more  names,  applied  to  the 
same  individual,  stand  in  a  sort  of  apposition  to  each  other,  they 
are  generally  considered  as  one  complex  name,  and  are  made  plural 
by  varying  the  last  only. 

Ex. — The  George  Washingtons.  May  there  not  be  Sir  Isaac  JSfewtons 
in  every  science  ? —  Watts. 

6.  A  Title  and  a  Name.— When  a  title,  as  Miss,  Mrs.,  Mr., 
Messrs.,  Gen.,  Capt.,  or  Dr.,  is  prefixed  to  a  proper  name,  usage  has 
not  been  uniform  in  the  formation  of  the  plural.  Sometimes  the 
title,  sometimes  the  name,  and  sometimes  both,  have  been  varied. 

Ex. — The  Misses  Brown;  The  Miss  Thompsons ;  The  Misses  Winthrops. 

7.  In  all  these  cases,  the  relative  prominence  of  the  name  and 
title,  for  the  most  part,  determines  the  plural  form.    Thus, — 


48  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

(a.)  When  the  name  is  made  prominent,  that  alone,  and  not  the  title, 
takes  the  plural  form.  In  speaking  of  three  persons  by  the  name  of 
Brown,  we  should  say  (44,  2),  "  The  three  Browns ;"  thus  distinguishing 
them  from  the  Smiths,  or  those  of  any  other  name.  Now,  with  this  idea 
uppermost,  if  we  wished  also  to  distinguish  them  as  young  ladies,  we 
should  add,  incidentally,  the  distinctive  title, — "  the  three  3Iiss  Brovms." 
So,  the  Dr.  Smiths. 

(b.)  When  the  title  is  to  be  made  prominent,  that  alone  should  be 
varied.  Thus,  if  we  should  speak  of  three  persons,  and  say,  the  three 
Misses,  we  should  distinguish  them,  as  ladies,  from  so  many  gentlemen ; 
in  the  same  way  we  say,  the  two  Drs.,  the  three  Generals.  If  now,  with  the 
title  prominent,  we  would  incidentally  add  the  name,  we  should  say,  (1) 
if  the  names  were  different^  "  the  three  Misses  Brown,  Atwood,  and  Put- 
nam;" (2)  if  the  same,  "the  three  Misses  Brown,"  and  especially  so  with- 
out the  numeral ;  as,  "  the  Misses  Brown."  In  the  former  of  these  eases, 
if  the  name  were  prominent,  we  should  say,  "  Miss  Brown,  Miss  Atwood^ 
and  Miss  Putnam." 

(c.)  When  two  titles  are  made  equally  prominent,  they  are  both  varied. 

Ex. — The  Lords  Bishops  of  Durham  and  St.  David's ;  The  Knights 
Baronets  (43,  8). 

And  so  it  would  seem,  by  the  same  law,  that,  when  a  title  and  a  name 
are  made  equally  emphatic,  they  should  both  be  varied.  Thus,  the 
Misses  Winthrop,  in  distinction  from  the  Messrs.  Winthrop;  and  the 
3Iisses  Winthrops,  in  distinction  from  the  3Iessrs.  Mortons.  Yet  usage 
seems  to  be  nearly  uniform  in  placing  the  plural  name  after  3frs, — as, 
"  the  3frs.  Whites," — and  the  plural  title  before  the  names,  when  persons 
of  different  names  are  mentioned  together ;  as,  "  the  Misses  Wilson  and 
Everett ;  3Iessrs.  Little  and  Brown." 


45.  Remarks  on  the  Number  of  Nouns. 

1.  Nouns  without  a  Plural. — Proper  nouns,  except  as  in  (44, 
2,  3),  and  nouns  denoting  substance  (43,  7),  except  when  different 
sorts  are  expressed,  have  no  plural. 

Ex. — Gold,  grass,  urine. 

2.  Nouns  without  the  Singular. — The  following  nouns  have 
no  singular:  scissors,  vespers,  ashes,  clothes,  billiards,  ides,  vitals, 
bellows,  drawers,  nippers,  tongs,  shears,  &c.  Lungs,  boiuels,  and  some 
others,  have  a  singular  denoting  a  part  of  the  whole.  Embers,  oats, 
literati,  antipodes,  intestines,  are  seldom  used  in  the  singular. 


ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS.  49 

3.  The  following  words  are  plural  in  respect  to  their  original 
form,  but  singular  or  plural  in  respect  to  their  meaning:  alms, 
amends,  news,  riches,  pams  (meaning  ejfort),  odds,  wages,  molasses, 
series,  suds,  corps,  measles,  tidings,  mumps,  rickets,  nuptials;  as  also 
the  names  of  some  of  the  sciences ;  as,  mathematics,  ethics,  optios, 
statics,  mechanics,  mnemonics. 

Note. — News  is  now  regarded  as  singular;  so  also  are  measles  and  molasses, 
although  they  have  the  plural  form. 

4.  Nouns  either  Singular  or  Plural.— Some  nouns  are 
alike  in  both  numbers. 

Ex. — Deer,  sheep,  mine,  vermin,  hose,  fry,  trout,  salmon,  brace,  couple, 
dozen,  yoke,  gross. 

46.  Exercise. 

1.  Tell  which  of  the  following  nouns  are  singular,  and  which  are 
plural: — 

Daughter,  day,  chairs,  watches,  apple,  pears,  stars,  oats,  coat, 
goose,  oxen,  nails,  inkstand,  horn,  darkness,  hearts,  hoof,  books, 
bundle,  scissors,  news,  trout,  milk,  purity,  chimneys,  automata, 
beaux,  genus. 

2.  Write  the  plural  of  the  following  nouns,  and  give  the  rule  for  the 
termination : — 

Work,  example,  lady,  oak,  horse,  hope,  box,  stratagem,  ferry, 
leaf,  storm,  bird,  bond,  thief,  sex,  day,  filly,  half,  watch,  iron, 
vinegar,  turkey,  canto,  tomato,  potato,  spoonful,  knight-ternplar, 
step-father. 

3.  Tell  the  singular  of  the  following : — 

Heroes,  pence,  strata,  teeth,  dies,  memoranda,  children,  mice, 
hypotheses,  messieurs,  brethren,  scissors,  seraphim,  axes,  snuffers, 
errata,  cherubim,  sheep,  formulae,  swine,  solos,  flies',  knives,  riches, 
mottoes,  octavos,  courts-martial,  inkstands,  indices,  dozen,  genii, 
wharves. 

4.  Correct  the  following  plurals,  and  give  the  rule  or  remarks  for  the 
correction : — 

Negros,  folioes,  vallies,  dutys,  thiefs,  yokes,  calfs,  phenomenons, 
criterions,  mans,  turkies,  flys,  father-in-laws,  grottoes,  son-in-laws, 
cups-full,  echoes. 

D  5 


60  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

47,  Gender  of  Nouns, 

1.  Gender  is  a  distinction  of  nouns  in  regard  to  sex. 

2.  There  are  three  genders, — the  masculine,  the/emmme, 
and  the  neuter. 

3.  Nouns  which  denote  males  are  of  the  masculine 
gender. 

Ex. — Man,  king,  hero. 

4.  Nouns  which  denote  females  are  of  the  feminine 
gender. 

Ex. —  Woman,  queen,  mother. 

5.  Nouns  which  denote  neither  males  nor  females  are 
of  the  neuter  gender. 

Ex. — Tree,  rock,  paper. 

6.  Some  nouns  denote  either  males  or  females. 
Ex. — Parent,  child,  cousin,  friend,  neighbor. 

These  are  sometimes  said  to  be  of  the  common  gender ;  but,  as  the 
gender  of  such  nouns  may  generally  be  determined  by  the  connec- 
tion, there  seems  to  be  no  necessity  for  the  distinction.  In  case  the 
gender  is  not  so  determined,  such  nouns  may  be  called  masculine. 

7.  By  a  figure  of  speech,  called  Personification,  the  masculine  or 
feminine  gender  is  applied  to  inanimate  objects :  thus,  we  say  of  a 
ship,  ^^  She  sails  well ;"  of  the  sun,  ^^  He  rises  in  the  east."  The  use 
of  this  figure  imparts  peculiar  beauty  and  animation  to  language. 
"  Her  flag  streams  wildly,  and  her  fluttering  sails  pant  to  be  on  their 
flight."     "  The  meek-eyed  morn  appears,  mother  of  dews." 

8.  In  speaking  of  the  inferior  animals,  and  sometimes  even  of 
infants,  the  distinction  of  sex  is  not  observed. 

Ex. — And  it  became  a  serpent,  and  Moses  fled  from  before  it.  The 
child  was  lying  in  its  cradle. 

But  in  speaking  of  animals  distinguished  for  boldness,  size,  or 
any  other  marked  quality  peculiar  to  the  male,  we  attribute  to  them 
the  masculine  gender,  even  when  the  sex  is  not  known. 

Ex. — The  eagle  is  the  king  of  birds. 

9.  Collective  nouns,  if  they  convey  the  idea  of  unity,  or  take  the 
])kiral  form,  are  neuter. 


t 


ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS — GENDER. '         51 

Ex. — The  army,  on  its  approach,  raised  a  shout  of  defiance. 

But  if  they  convey  the  idea  of  plurality  without  the  plural  form, 
they  take  the  gender  of  the  individuals  which  compose  the  col- 
lection. 

Ex. — The  jury  could  not  agree  upon  their  verdict. 

10.  When  the  sexes  are  distinguished  by  different  words  (48, 1), 
the  masculine  is  used  to  include  both  sexes. 

Ex. — Jenner  conferred  a  great  benefit  on  man. 


48.  Methods  of  distinguishing  the  Sexes. 

1.  By  using  different  words : — 

Examples. — Bachelor,  maid ;  beau,  belle;  boar,:>sow;  boy,  girl; 
brother,  sister ;  buck,  doe ;  bull;  cow ;  cock,  hen ;  drake,  duck ;  earl, 
countess;  father,  mother;  gander,  goose;  horse^  mare;  husband, 
wife;  king,  queen;  lad,  lass;  lord,  lady;  male,  female;  man, 
woman;  nephew,  niece;  ram,  ewe;  son,  daughter;  stag,  hind; 
uncle,  aunt;  wizard,  witch;  dog,  bitch;  monk,  nun;  hart,  roe; 
master,  mistress ;  Mister,  Mistress  (Mr.,  Mrs.) ;  papa,  mamma;  sir, 
madam ;  sloven,  slut ;  steer,  heifer ;  youth,  damsel ;  swain,  nymph. 

(a.)  Some  masculine  nouns  have  no  corresponding  feminines. 
Ex. — Baker,  brewer,  porter,  carrier. 

While  some  feminine  nouns  have  no  corresponding  masculines. 
Ex. — Laundress,  seamstress. 

2.  By  a  difference  of  termination : — 

Examples. — Abbot,  abbess ;  actor,  actress ;  administrator,  admi- 
nistratrix ;  adulterer,  adulteress ;  ambassador,  ambassadress ;  author, 
authoress;  baron,  baroness;  bridegroom,  bride;  benefactor,  bene- 
factress; count,  countess;  czar,  czarina;  dauphin,  dauphiness; 
deacon,  deaconess ;  director,  directress ;  don,  donna ;  duke,  duchess ; 
emperor,  empress ;  executor,  executrix ;  governor,  governess ;  heir, 
heiress;  hero,  heroine ;  hunter,  huntress;  host,  hostess;  instructor, 
instructress;  Jew,  Jewess;  landgrave,  landgravine;  lion,  lioness; 
marquis,  marchioness ;  monitor,  monitress ;  patron,  patroness ;  poet, 
poetess;  priest,  priestess;  prince,  princess;  prophet,  prophetess; 
shepherd,  shepherdess;  tailor,  tailoress;  testator,  testatrix;  tiger, 
tigress;  tutor,  tutoress;  viscount,  viscountess;  widower,  widow; 
god,  goddess ;  giant,  giantess ;  negro,  negress ;  songster,  songstress ; 
sorcerer,  sorceress ;  sultan,  sultana. 


52  •  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

3.  By  joining  some  distinguishing  word : — 

Examples. — luamdlord,  landlady  ;  gentleman,  gentlewoman  ;  pea. 
cock,  -pesihen;  he-goat,  she-goat;  man-servant,  maid-ser\ant ;  malt 
child,  female  child ;  coc/?;-sparrow,  Aew-sparrow ;  grandfather,  grand- 
mother;  English?/za?i,  EnglishwomaTi/  memian,  meimaid;  school- 
master,  schoohnistress. 


4:9.  Exercise. 

1.  Tell  which  of  the  following  nouns  are  masculine,  which  feminine, 
and  which  neuter: — 

Picture,  walnut,  duchess,  Spaniard,  letter,  sailor,  queen,  priest, 
curtain,  lioness,  nun,  captain,  widow,  wizard,  deacon,  hospital, 
banner,  brother,  countess. 

2.  Give  the  feminine  gender  of  the  following  nouns: — 

Man,  abbot,  horse,  hero,  tiger,  heir,  prophet,  Jew,  male,  lord) 
widower,  husband,  beau,  uncle,  host,  poet,  gander,  sultan,  master, 
king,  bridegroom,  prince,  nephew,  duke. 

3.  Give  the  masculine  gender  of  the  following : — 

Empress,  mother,  sister,  marchioness,  woman,  she-goat,  electress, 
witch,  doe. 

4.  Fill  the  blanJcs  in  the  following  examples;  the  first  five  with  com- 
mon nouns  in  the  masculine  gender : — 

is  patient.    loves  his  sister.    reigns  king 

of  beasts.  exposes  his  wares  for  sale.  should  vene- 
rate the  old.  The  next  five  with  proper  w'  common  nouns  in  the 
feminine  gender:  was  Queen  of  England.  enter- 
tained her  guests  with  grace.    —  was  a  distinguished  poetess. 

was  the  nightingale  of  Sweden.    loves  her  offspring. 

The  next  five  with  collective  nouns,  and  tell  the  gender :  met  at 

the  house  of  a  friend.    brought  in  a  verdict.    were 

appointed  by  the  chair.    must  obey  its  leaders.    

listened  with  delight. 

5.  Select  the  nouns  in  the  following  example;  tell  the  class,  person, 
number  J  and  gender  of  each  noun: — 

Thou  too  sail  on,  0  Ship  of  State  I 
Sail  on,  O  Union,  strong  and  great ! 
Humanity,  with  all  its  fears, 
With  all  the  hopes  of  future  years. 


ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS — CASE.  53 

Is  hanging  breathless  on  thy  fate ! 

We  know  what  Master  laid  thy  keel, 

What  workmen  wrought  thy  ribs  of  steel. — Longjellow. 


50.  Case  of  Nouns. 

1.  Case  denotes  the  relation  of  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  to 
tjther  words. 

2.  There  are  three  cases, — the  nominativej  the  possessive, 
and  the  objective. 

3.  The  nominative  case  is  the  simplest  form  of  the  noun, 
and  is  commonly  used  as  the  subject  of  a  proposition. 

Ex. — George  speaks.     The  door  was  shut. 

4.  Besides  being  the  subject  of  a  proposition,  the  nominative 
case  may  be  used — 1st,  as  the  attribute  of  a  proposition;  2d,  to 
identify  the  subject  or  the  attribute ;  3d,  it  may  be  independent  of 
any  other  word. 

Ex. — (1st.)  Peter  was  an  apostle.  The  stars  are  suns.  (2d.)  Milton, 
the  poet,  was  blind.  It  was  John,  the  beloved  disciple.  (3d.)  Henry, 
attend  to  your  studies.    Mary,  are  you  ready  ?  ^ 

5.  The  possessive  case  denotes  the  relation  of  property 
or  possession. 

Ex. — David's  harp. 

6.  The  possessive  singular  of  nouns  is  regularly  formed 
by  adding  an  apostrophe  ( ' )  and  the  letter  &»  to  the  nomi- 
native. 

Ex. — Man's,  David's. 

7.  When  the  plural  ends  in  s,  the  apostrophe  only  is 
added. 

Ex. — Boys',  ladies'. 

But  the  (^)  and  s  are  added  when  the  plural  ends  in 
any  other  letter  than  s. 

Ex. — Men's,  women's,  brethren's. 

8.  The  possessive  termination  ('s)  in  the  singular  is  evidently  a 
contraction  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  or  Old  English  genitive  es  or  /d. 

5* 


54  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

The  ( ' )  in  the  plural  is  a  modern  invention  used  to  denote  the 
possessive  case.  In  Lord  Grey's  letter  to  the  Prince  of  Wales, 
written  in  the  latter  part  of  the  twelfth  or  the  first  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  are  these  expressions :—" Our  liege  Lordes  pryve  seal;" 
"  The  Kynges  commaundement ;"  "  The  Erles  ground." 

9.  When  the  singular  ends  in  s,  or  in  a  letter  or  combination  of 
letters  having  the  sound  of  s,  and  the  addition  of  a  syllable  would 
be  harsh,  the  poets  and  some  prose-  writers  add  the  ( ' )  only. 

Ex. — Peleus'  son,  goodness'  sake,  conscience'  sake,  Moses'  seat,  cockatrice^ 
den. 

Remarks. — Some  difference  of  opinion  prevails  among  writers  respecting 
the  form  of  the  possessive  in  other  cases  where  the  singular  ends  in  s,  some 
adding  the  ( ' )  only,  and  some  the  ( ' )  and  s.  Thus,  wo  have  Adams'  Kvpj-ess, 
or  Adams's  Exjjress;  Otis'  Letters,  or  Otis' s  Letters.  The  weight  of  authority  is 
in  favor  of  the  additional  s,  whenever  the  laws  of  euphony  will  admit ;  espe- 
cially if  a  syllable  is  added  in  pronouncing  the  word;  as,  Bates's  Sermons, 
Barnes's  Notes.  • 

10.  In  nouns  whose  singular  and  plural  are  alike  (45,  4),  the 
apostrophe  should  precede  the  s  in  the  singular,  and  follow  it  in  the 
plural. 

Ex. — Deer's,  deers';  sheep's,  sheeps*. 

Remarks. — For  the  sound  of  the  apostrophic  s,  and  the  increase  of  sylla- 
bles, see  (42,  2,  3.)  The  use  of  the  apostrophe  and  s  to  mark  the  plural  of 
letters  and  signs  (43,  9)  has  no  connection  with  case. 

11.  When  a  noun  follows  a  transitive  verb  or  a  pre- 
position, it  is  in  the  objective  case. 

Ex. — Thomas  opened  his  knife.    The  bird  sat  on  the  free. 

12.  The  nominative  case  answers  the  question  Whof  or  WJmt? 
as,  "  Who  writes  ?"  "  John  writes."—"  What  alarms  him  ?"  "  The 
storm  alarms  him."  ThQ possessive  case  answers  the  question  Whose  f 
as,  ^^ Whose  book  have  you?"  "I  have  my  brother's  book."  The 
objective  case  answers  the  question  Whom?  or  What?  as,  "Whom 
do  you  see?"  "I  see  the  captain." — "On  what  does  he  stand?" 
^  He  stands  upon  the  decTc.'^ 

13.  The  possessive  case  may  be  known  by  its  form.  But  the 
forms  of  the  nominative  and  the  objective  are  alike :  hence  they 
must  be  determined  by  their  relation  to  other  words. 


ETYMOLOGY — DECL.ENSION   OF   NOUNS.  55 

51.  Declension  of  Nouns. 

The  declension  of  a  noun  is  its  variation  to  denote 
number  and  case. 


EXAMPLES. 

1.  Boy. 

Singular. 

riural. 

Nom. 

^     Boy, 

Boys, 

Pos. 

Boy's, 

Boys', 

ObJ. 

Boy; 

2.  Fly. 

Boys. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

Nom. 

Fly, 

Flies, 

Pos. 

Fly's, 

Flies', 

ObJ. 

Fly; 

3.  John. 

Flies. 

Singular 

Plural. 

Nom. 

John, 

Wanting. 

Pos. 

John's, 

ObJ. 

John. 
4.  Goodness. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

Nom. 

Goodness, 

Wanting. 

Pos. 

Goodness', 

ObJ. 

Goodness. 

52.  Exercise. 

1.  Put  the  following  nouns  in  Italics  into  the  possessive  case,  and  Id 
each  expression  be  ivritten  on  your  slates,  thus : — 

The  carpenter  axe.    The  carpenter's  axe. 

Abraham  son.  David  harp.  3foses  law.  Adams  Arithmetic. 
Webster  Dictionary.  The  coachman  dog  barked  at  the  herdsman 
sheep.  The  lion  roar  aroused  the  shepherd  dog.  The  farmer  corn 
was  destroyed  by  his  neighbor  cow. 

2.  Give  the  rule  for  forming  the  possessive  case. 


56  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

3.   Write  the  following  nomis  in  the  possessive  plural ^  and  place  some 
appropriate  noun  after  them,  thus : — 

The  tailors^  shears.    The  men^s  apartment. 

Tailor,  seaman,  captain,  doctor,  brother,  valley,  folly,  alley,  ally, 
hero,  arch,  child,  director,  president,  sheep. 


53.  Parsing. 

1.  Parsing  consists, — 

(1.)  In  telling  the  part  of  speech. 
(2.)  In  telling  its  properties  or  accidents, 
(3.)  In  pointing  out  its  relation  to  other  words,  and 
giving  the  rule  for  its  construction. 

2.  In  parsing  a  noun, —  • 
(1.)  Say  it  is  a  noun,  and  why. 

(2.)   Common  or  proper,  and  why. 

(3.)  Of  the  first,  the  second,  or  the  third  person,  and  why. 

(4.)  Of  the  singular  or  tho,  plural  number,  and  why. 

(5.)  Of  the  masculine,  the  feminine,  or  the  neuter  gender,  and  why. 

(6.)  Of  the  nominative,  the  possessive,  or  the  objective  case,  and  why. 

(7.)  The  rule  for  construction. 

Note. — The  pupil  who  has  been  thoroughly  drilled  in  the  Introduction 
may  be  able  to  introduce  this  third  element  of  parsing,  if  the  teacher  choose. 
The  Kules  of  Syntax  will  of  course  be  anticipated,  if  applied  here.  The 
teacher  can  omit  or  use  the  rules,  as  he  may  think  best. 

54.  Exercise. 

MODELS   FOR   PARSING   NOUNS. 

Washington,  the  successful  general,  vjas  also  a  true  patriot. 
Wasbing^n  is  a  noun, — it  is  the  name  of  an  object ;  proper, — it  is 
the  name  of  an  individual  object ;  third  person,— it  de- 
notes the  person  spoken  of;  singular  number,— it  de- 
notes but  one ;  masculine  gender, — it  denotes  a  male ; 
nominative  case, — it  is  the  subject  of  the  proposition 
"  Washington  was  a  patriot,"  according  to  Rule  I. : 
"A  noun  or  pronoun,  used  as  the  subject  of  a  pro- 
position, must  be  in  the  nominative  case." 


ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS — PARSING.  57 

General  .  .  .  is  a  noim  (why?) ;  common  (why?) ;  third  person  (why?)  ; 
singular  number  (why?);  masculine  gender  (why?; 
nominative  case,  and  is  put  in  apposition  with  Washing- 
ton. Rule  VI. :  "  A  noun  or  pronoun,  used  to  explain 
or  identify  another  noun  or  pronoun,  is  put  by  appo- 
sition in  the  same  case." 

Patriot .  .  .  is  2i  noun  (why?) ;  common  (why?) ;  third  person  (why?) ; 
singular  number  (why?);  masculine  gender  (why?); 
nominative  case  (why?) ;  it  is  used  as  the  attribute  of 
the  proposition,  "Washington  was  a  patriot."  Rule 
II. :  "A  noun  or  pronoun,  used  as  the  attribute  of  a 
proposition,  must  be  in  the  nominative  case." 

2.  John,  bring  me  Fanny's  History,  that  book  lying  on  the  desJc. 

John  .  .  is  a  proper  noun,  second  person,  singular  number,  mascu- 
line gender,  and  nominative  case  independent.  Rule  X. : 
"  The  nominative  case  independent,  and  the  interjection, 
have  no  grammatical  relation  to  the  rest  of  the  sentence." 

Fanny's  is  a  proper  noun,  third  person,  singular  number,  feminine 
gender,  possessive  case  (why?),  and  limits  History.  Rule 
VII. :  "  A  noun  or  pronoun,  used  to  limit  another  noun  by 
denoting  possession,  must  be  in  the  possessive  case." 

Ilistory  is  a  common  noun,  third  person,  singular  number,  neuter 
gender,  objective  case,  and  is  the  object  of  bring.  Rule 
VIII. :  "  A  noun  or  pronoun,  used  as  the  object  of  a  transi- 
tive verb,  or  its  participles,  must  be  in  the  objective  case." 

Book  .  .  is  a  common  noun,  third  person,  singular  number,  neuter 
gender,  objective  case,  and  is  put  in  apposition  with  History. 
Rule  VI. 

Desk  .  .  is  a  common  noun,  third  person,  singular  number,  neuter 
gender,  objective  case,  and  is  the  object  of  the  preposition 
on.  Rule  XIV. :  "  A  noun  or  pronoun,  used  as  the  object 
of  a  preposition,  must  be  in  the  objective  case." 

3.  Select  the  nouns  in  the  following  examples,  and  parse  them  accord- 
ing to  the  forms  given  above: — 

The  first  land  discovered  by  Columbus  was  an  island,  to  which 
he  gave  the  name  of  San  Salvador.  King  Agrippa,  believest  thou 
the  prophets  ?  In  truth,  the  proper  rest  for  man  is  change  of  occu- 
pation. 

In  autumn  there  is  no  sudden  blight  of  youth  and  beauty ;  no 
Bwect  hopes  of  life  are  blasted,  no  generous  aim  at  usefulness  and 


68  ENGLISH  GEAMMAR. 

advancing  virtue  cut  short.    The  year  is  drawing  to  its  natural  term, 
the  seasons  have  run  their  usual  course ;  all  their  blessings  have 
been  enjoyed,  and  all  our  precious  things  are  cared  for. — Cooper. 
One  moment  I  looked  from  the  hill's  gentle  slope, 

All  hushed  was  the  billow's  commotion, 
And  methought  that  the  light-house  looked  lovely  as  Hope, 
That  star  on  life's  tremulous  ocean. — Moore. 
Land  of  the  beautiful  and  brave. 
The  freeman's  home,  the  martyr's  grave. 
The  nursery  of  giant  men, 
^  Whose  deeds  are  linked  with  every  glen ! 

My  own  green  land  for  ever ! —  Whittier. 
Attention  makes  the  genius ;  all  learning,  fancy,  and  science  de- 
pend upon  it.—  Wilmott. 

4.  Let  the  whole  class  parse  these  or  other  words  on  the  slate,  thus : — 
Washington  is  N.  p.  3d,  s.  m.  nom.     R.  I. 
Fanny's  is  N.  p.  3d,  s.  f.  pos.     R.  VII. 
Desk  is  N.  c.  3d,  s.  n.  obj.    R.  XIV. 

ADJECTIVES. 

55.  Definitions. 

1.  An  adjective  is  a  word  used  to  limit  or  qualify  a 
noun. 

Ex. — A  good  school ;  a  diligent  boy ;  this  table ;  ten  men  ;  the  box. 

All  words  which  have  the  construction  of  the  adjective  are  here  considered 
under  the  head  of  adjectives.  The  article,  like  the  adjective,  belongs  to  the 
noun ;  it  has  the  same  construction  as  the  adjective,  and  is  hence  jilaced 
among  adjectives. 

2.  Every  adjective  is  a  dependent  or  subordinate  word,  and  must 
belong  to  some  noun  or  pronoun  as  its  principal. 

3.  When  the  noun  or  pronoun  to  which  the  adjective  belongs  has 
been  previously  used  in  the  same  sentence,  or  is  some  indefinite 
word,  as,  person,  some  one,  or  some  thing,  it  may  be  omitted. 

Ex. — I  will  give  you  this  book,  if  yoii  will  give  nie  that  [book]. 
The  kingdom  of  heaven  suffereth  violence, (and  the  violent  [persons] 
take  it  by  force. 

An  adjective  belonging  to  a  noun  understood  or  omitted,  takes  the  place 
of  the  latter,  and  is  said  to  be  a.n- adjective  need  as  a  noun. 


ETYMOLOGY — ADJECTIVES — ARTICLES.  5y 

56.  Classes  of  Adjectives. 

1.  Adjectives  are  divided  into  two  classes. — limiting  and 
qualifying. 

2.  A  limiting  adjective  is  used  to  define  or  i^estrict  the 
meaning  of  a  noun,  without  expressing  any  of  its  qualities. 

Ex. — The  house ;  five  books ;  this  pen ;  many  men. 

3.  Limiting  adjectives  are  divided  into  three  classes, — 
articles,  pronominal  adjectives,  and  numeral  adjectives, 

57.  Articles. 

1.  The  particular  limiting  adjectives,  the,  and  a  or  an, 
are  called  articles. 

2.  The  is  called  the  definite  article,  because  it  points 
out  some  particular  thing. 

Ex. — The  desk ;  the  sun. 

3.  A  or  an  is  called  the  indefinite  article,  because  it 
does  not  point  out  any  particular  thing. 

Ex. — A  pen  ;  an  orchard. 

4.  An  is  used  before  a  vowel  sound,  and  a  before  a  con- 
sonant sound. 

Ex. — An  apple ;  a  pin  ;  an  hour ;  a  union  ;  an  honor. 

Although  the  article  is  intimately  connected  with  the  limitation  of  nouns, 
it  is  to  be  regarded  rather  as  the  sign  of  limitation  than  as  itself  a  limiting 
word.  When  one  says,  "  The  man,"  the  gives  notice  to  the  hearer  that  some 
particular  man  is  regarded  in  the  mind  of  the  speaker.  He  will  point  out,  by 
limiting  or  individualizing,  who  that  particular  man  is.  A  or  an,  again,  is  a 
siyn  that  the  speaker,  in  regarding  a  multitude  of  objects  of  the  same  kind, 
thinks  of  one,  but  no  specific  or  particular  one.  The  noun  may  be  limited  to 
show  what  class  or  description  of  objects  is  meant,  but  not  to  show  any  par- 
ticular individual.  A  or  an,  however,  may  be  said  to  limit  whenever  it  pre- 
vents a  noun  from  being  used  in  its  widest  sense. 

Ex. — Man  ==  the  whole  human  race;  a  man  =  one  man,  but  no  parti- 
cular one. 

The,  again,  may  be  said  to  extend  the  meaning  of  a  noun  in  the  singular, 
when  it  is  used  in  such  examples  as  these :  "  The  horse"  ==  all  horses. 
"  The  dog,"  &<i. 


60  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

5.  The  article  has  the  construction  of  the  limiting  adjective,  and 
is  to  be  parsed  like  it. 

A  or  an  is  used  before  nouns  in  the  singular;  the,  before  nouns 
in  the  singular  or  plural. 

•  6.  Usually  no  article  is  needed  before  nouns  used  in  the  whole 
Client  of  their  signification,  or  nouns  denoting  an  individual,  whether 
belonging  to  a  class  or  not  (36,  4). 

Ex. — Man  is  mortal.  '  Gold  is  precious. 

58.  Exercise. 

Point  out  the  articles  in  the  following  examples;  tell  which  are 
definite  and  which  are  indefinite : — 

The  hat,  a  book,  a  knife,  a  box,  an  heir,  an  ox,  a  plough,  an 
orchard,  an  industrious  man,  an  honest  man,  a  good  citizen,  a  hill, 
a  huge  round  stone,  the  enemy,  the  union  the  ewe,  a  university. 

59.  Pronominal  Adjectives. 

1.  Those  limiting  adjectives  which  may,  without  the 
use  of  the  article,  represent  a  noun  understood,  are  called 
pronominal  adjectives. 

Ex. — That  (book)  is  his;  this  is  yours. 

2.  The  principal  pronominal  adjectives  are  iliiSy  that,  these, 
those,  former,  latter,  which,  what,  each,  every,  either,  neither, 
some,  one,  none,  any,  other,  another,  all,  whole,  such,  much, 
both,  few,  fewer,  fewest,  first,  last,  little,  less,  least,  many, 
more,  most,  own,  same,  several,  sundry,  certain,  divers,  enough, 

3.  When  such  adjectives  represent  a  noun  understood,  they  are 
generally  called  pronouns.  They  may  more  properly  be  called 
limiting  adjectives  [pronominal  adjectives)  used  as  nouns. 

Ex. — This  is  my  book. 

The  articles  never  represent  a  noun  understood. 

4.  Qualifying  adjectives  may  also  represent  a  noun  when  under- 
stood ;  but  the  article  must  be  prefixed. 

Ex. — The  good  are  happy. 

5.  All  is  sometimes  a  noun. 

Ex.— He  robbed  me  of  my  house,  my  goods,  my  home,  my  all. 


ETYMOLOGY — PRONOMINAL   ADJECTIVES.  61 

Both  is  frequently  a  conjunction. 
Ex. — I  both  saw  and  heard  him. 

6.  Among  the  pronominal  adjectives  may  be  distinguished,— 
(1.)  Distributives,  or  those  which  point  out  objects  taken  singly. 
They  are  each,  every,  either,  neither. 

(2.)  Demonstratives,  or  those  which  point  out  objects  definitely, 
fehowing  which  is  meant. 

They  are  this,  that,  these,  those,  former,  latter,  same. 

(3.)  Indefinites,  or  those  which  point  out  objects  indefinitely. 

They  are  some,  one,  none,  all,  any,  whole,  such,  other,  another. 

(4. )  Reciprocals,  or  those  which  are  reciprocally  related. 

They  are  each  other,  one  another. 

Remark. — The  possessives  of  the  personal  pronouns  are  by  some  reckoned 
as  pronominal  adjectives ;  namely,  my,  mine,  our,  ours,  thy,  thine,  your,  yours, 
his,  her,  hers,  its,  their,  theirs.  It  is  better  to  regard  them  as  the  possessive 
case  of  the  pronouns. 

7.  These,  those,  all,  many,  both,  few,  fewer,  fewest,  several,  sundry ^ 
usually  require  a  noun  in  the  plural. 

Ex. — These  days ;  those  plants. 

8.  Either  and  neither  are  used  with  reference  to  two  things  only. 
When  more  than  two  objects  are  referred  to,  any  and  none  should 
be  used. 

Ex. — Take  either  road ;  both  are  bad  enough ;  and  neither  will  suit 
you.     Any  of  the  four  plans  will  meet  with  favor. 

9.  This  refers  to  the  nearer  or  last-mentioned  object ;  that,  to  the 
more  remote  or  first-mentioned. 

10.  One  and  other  are  declined  thus : — 

Sing.  Plur.  Sing.  Plur. 

Norn.      One,  Ones,  Norn.      Other,  Others, 

Pos.        One's,  Ones',  Pos.        Other's,  Others', 

Obj.         One;  Ones.  Obj.        Other;  Others. 

60.  Exercise. 

1.  Point  out  thepronominal  adjectives  in  the  following  sentences: — ■ 
This  rule  is  preferable  to  that.    These  scholars  are  more  studious 
than  those.    The  former  plan  has  yielded  to  the  latter.    Eacli  exer- 

0 


62  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

cise  was  well  written.  Every  accused  one  was  acquitted.  The  first 
method  is  better  than  the  last.  Many  of  our  hopes  are  blasted. 
Few  men  are  of  the  same  mind.  Much  remains  to  be  said  upon  al] 
these  points.  Our  own  wishes  must  often  be  yielded  to  those  of 
others.  More  were  present  than  were  expected.  Little  hope  was 
entertained  of  his  recovery.  Neither  remark  was  just.  The  same 
course  was  pursued  by  several  of  the  members.  Much  harm  arises 
from  imprudence.  "  Unto  me,  who  am  less  than  the  least  of  all 
saints." 

61.  Numeral  Adjectives. 

1.  Nnmeral  adjectives  are  those  which  express  num- 
ber; as,  onCy  two,  three,  fir  sty  second,  &c. 

2.  Numeral  adjectives  are  divided  into, — 
Cardinal,  which  denote  how  many, 

Ex. — Owe,  two,  three,  &c. 

Ordinal,  which  show  which  one  of  a  series, 

Ex. — First,  second,  third. 

Multiplicative,  which  show  repetition. 

Ex. — Twice,  or  twofold,  thrice,  or  threefold,  &c. 

3.  When  a  numeral  is  used  as  a  noun,  the  cardinal,  like  the  pro- 
nominal adjective,  takes  no  article;  while  the  ordinal  has  the 
article  prefixed. 

Ex. — Two  only  were  present.    The  third  was  lost. 

62.  Exercise. 

1.  Apply  cardinal  numhei's  to  the  following  nouns;  change  them  to 
the  plural,  if  necessary: — 

Peach,  berry,  box,  match,  cork,  shoe,  penny,  mouse,  goose, 
woman,  court-martial,  tooth,  brother-in-law,  handfuls,  stratum, 
index,  stamen,  cherub,  phenomenon. 

2.  Correct  the  following  plurals,  and  apply  to  each  any  numeral 
greater  than  one  or  first: — 

Oxes,  calfs,  sheeps,  deers,  geeses,  9s,  7s,  fs,  cherubims,  seraphims, 
swines,  vallies,  loafs,  chimnies,  journies,  studys,  commander-in- 
chiefs,  heros,  soloes,  grottoes,  ladys,  spoonsful,  trouts,  dozens. 


ETYMOLOGY — ADJECTIVES — COMPARISON.  63 

63.  Qualifj  ing  Adjectiyes. 

1.  A  qualifying  adjective  is  one  which  limits  the  mean- 
ing of  a  noun,  by  denoting  some  property  or  quality, 

Ex. — A  virtuous  man ;  a  running  horse. 

2.  To  this  class  of  adjectives  belong  the  participles, 
which  have  the  signification  of  the  verb  and  the  con- 
struction of  the  adjective. 

3.  When  the  participle  is  placed  before  the  noun  which  it  modi- 
fies, it  is  called  a  participial  adjective, 

Ex. — The  rising  sun. 

When  it  is  placed  after  the  noun,  and  is  itself  limited  by  other 
words,  it  is  parsed  as  a  participle. 
Ex. — The  sun  rising  in  the  east. 

4.  When  a  qualifying  adjective  represents  an  object  understood, 
either  definite  or  indefinite,  the  article  the  must  be  placed  before  it. 

Ex.— The  wise  [persons]  ;  the  benevolent  [ones]  ;  the  beautiful,  tlie 
good,  and  the  true. 

When  a  quality  is  used  abstractly,  the  adjective  is  changed  to 
an  abstract  noun. 

Ex. — Wise,  y^hdom;  beautiful,  beaui?/.  . 

\/  64.  Comparison  of  Adjectires. 

/ 1>.^ Comparison  is  the  variation  of  tbe  adjective  to  ex- 
press different  degrees  of  the  quality  which  it  denotes. 

The  variation  may  take  place  in  the  meaning  only;  as  in  generous;  very, 
rttther,  too,  somewhat,  quite  generous  ;  more  generous,  most  generous ;  or  iu  both 
meiining  and  fortn;  as  in  clear,  clearer,  clearest 

2.  There  are  three  degrees  of  comparison, — the  positive, 
the  comparative^  and  the  superlative. 

3.  The  positive  denotes  a  quality  without  comparison. 

Ex. — Righteous,  pleasant.  The  pen  is  long.  The  street  is  long.  The 
Atlantic  cable  is  lo7ig. 

Had  pen,  stret-f,  and  Atlantic  cable  been  compared  in  respect  to  length,  we 
should  have  liad  long,  longer,  longest. 


64  ENGLISH   GEAMMAR. 

4.  The  eomparatiTe  expresses  a  higher  or  a  lower  de-. 

gree  than  the  positive. 

Ex. — The  sun  is  larger  than  the  moon.  The  march  was  lesa  difficuli 
bj  night  than  by  day. 

5.  The  siuperlatiTe  expresses  the  highest  or  the  lowest 

degree  of  the  quality. 

Ex. — The  dog  is  the  most  faithful  of  animals.  The  miser  is  the  least 
esteemed  of  men. 

6.  In  respect  to  intensity,  comparison  may  show  equal  or  unequal 
degrees. 

Ex. — Monday  will  be  as  convenient  as  Tuesday.  Truth  is  stranger 
than  fiction.     The  sweetest,  ivildest  land  on  earth. 

7.  In  respect  to  the  terms  compared,  it  may  show, — 

(1.)  That  tivo  objects,  qualities,  or  conditions  are  contrasted  in  the 
comparative  degree,  and  one,  with  two  more,  or  all  others,  in  the  super- 
lative. 

Ex. — George  is  older  than  his  brother,  or  is  the  older  of  the  two.  He 
is  more  prosperous  than  scrupulous.  Many  animals  are  more  active  by 
night  than  by  day.     Of  all  jewels,  the  diamond  is  the  most  precious. 

(2.)  That  diflTerent  objects  may  possess  the  same  quality  in  equal 
or  in  unequal  degrees. 

Ex. — Snow  is  as  white  as  loool.  Wool  is  whiter  than  hemp.  This  tree 
is  the  tallest  of  all  (the  trees). 

(3.)  That,  in  different  circumstances,  the  same  quality  may  be- 
long to  the  same  object  in  equal  or  in  unequal  degrees. 

Ex. — Our  commander  was  as  self-possessed  in  danger  as  in  safety. 
The  Asiatic  cholera  is  more  prevalent  in  autumn  than  in  winter,  and 
usually  most  prevalent  in  summer, 

(4.)  That  different  qualities  may  belong  to  the  same  object  in  equal 
or  in  unequal  degrees. 

Ex. — The  aid  was  as  timely  as  acceptable.  The  servant  was  more  skillful 
than  willing. 

(5.)  That  different  qualities  may  belong  to  different  objects  in  equal, 
but  rarely,  if  ever,  in  unequal,  degrees. 

Ex. — He  was  as  agreeable  as  his  opponent  was  offensive.  Scarcely,  with 
propriety.  He  was  more  agreeable  than  his  opponent  was  offensive. 

8.  In  respect  to  form,  comparison  may  take  place, — 


ETYMOLOGY — ADJECTIVES — COMPARISON. 


65 


(1.)    Without  any  change  of  the  adjective,  as  in  comparison  of  equality, 
or  when  an  adverb  is  applied  to  vary  the  meaning. 

(2.)  By  a  change  of  termination, — warm,  warmer,  warmest. 


65.  Formation  of  the  Comparative  and  the  Superlatire. 

1.  The  comparative  of  monosyllables  is  regularly  formed 
by  adding  r  or  er,  and  the  superlative  by  adding  st  or 
est,  to  the  positive. 

Ex. —  Wise,  wiser,  wisest;  bold,  bolder,  boldest. 

Remark. — Dissyllables  in  le  and  y,  and  some  others,  are  compared  like 
monosyllables;  as,  noble,  nobler,  noblest;  loorthy,  worthier,  worthiest. 

2.  The  comparative  of  most  adjectives  of  more  than  one 

syllable  (sometimes  of  one  only)  is  formed  by  prefixing 

more  or  less,  and  the  superlative  by  prefixing  most  or 

least,  to  the  positive. 

Ex.- — Industrious,  more  industrious,  most  industrious;  beaitti/ul,  less 
beautiful,  least  beautiful. 

3.  The  following  adjectives  are  compared  irregularly: — 


Positive. 

Comparative. 

Superlative. 

Good, 

better. 

best. 

Bad,) 

Evil,  [ 

worse, 

worst. 

111,    3 

Little, 

less  [lesser]. 

least. 

Much,  1 

more. 

most. 

Many,  j 

Far, 

farther, 

farthest. 

Forth  [obsolete), 

further. 

furthest. 

Near, 

nearer. 

nearest  or  next. 

Late, 

later. 

latest  or  last. 

Old, 

older  or 

elder. 

oldest  or  eldest. 

Fore, 

former, 

foremost  or  first. 

4.  Adjectives  terminating  in  ish  indicate  the  possession  of  a  qua- 
lity in  a  lower  degree  than  the  positive ;  as,  bluish,  approaching  in 
color  to  blue. 

5.  The  meaning  of  the  adjective  is  also  varied  by  the  addition 
of  such  adverbs  as  somewhat,  rather,  slightly,  a  little,  too,  very,  greatly^ 

E  6* 


66  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

exeeedmghj,  &c. ;  that  of  the  comparative  and  the  superlative,  by 
such  Avords  as  much,  far,  vastly,  altogether,  by  far,  &c. 
Ex.— Bather  Aveak  tea.     Eclipse  is  much  the  better  horse. 

6.  Several  adjectives  in  the  superlative  degree  are  formed  by- 
adding  most  to  up,  upper,  nether,  in,  inner,  hind,  hinder,  out  (con- 
tracted to  ut),  outer,  further,  hither,  top,  bottom;  as,  upmost,  upper- 
most, nethermost,  &c. 

7.  Adjectives  derived  from  proper  names,  numerals, 
those  referring  to  position,  material,  and  form,  and  those 
having  an  absolute  signification,  are  seldom,  if  ever,  com- 
pared. 

Ex. — German,  Spanish,  seven,  sixth,  perpendicular,  level,  square,  wool- 
len, icy. 

With  the  exception  of  much,  few,  first,  last,  little,  less,  least,  many,  more, 
most,  the  pronominal  adjectives  are  not  compared. 

8.  Many  adjectives  denoting  place  or  situation  are  deficient  in 
some  of  the  degrees :  thus,  further,  furthermost  or  furthest,  hither, 
hithermost,  nether,  nethermost,  under,  undermost,  want  the  positive. 
Northern,  northernmost;  rear,  rearmost,  and  others,  want  the  com- 
parative. Inferior,  superior,  junior,  major,  anterior,  posterior,  prior, 
ulterior,  senior,  minor,  are  directly  from  the  Latin,  and  have  neither 
the  positive  nor  the  superlative. 

66.  Exercise. 

1.  Telliohich  of  the  following  words  are  adjectives: — 

Ice,  cold,  soft,  water,  this,  little,  chair,  knob,  arise,  brave,  dili- 
gent, inkstand,  lamp,  many,  former,  light,  white,  match,  rough. 

2.  Tell  which  of  the  following  adjectives  are  limiting,  and  which  are 
qualifying : — 

Strong,  twenty,  faithful,  green,  this,  first,  an,  old,  former,  yellow, 
every,  such,  wonderful,  timid,  sweet,  any,  fifth,  the,  soft,  those,  pure, 
ripe,  tough. 

3.  Tell  which  of  the  following  adjectives  are  of  the  positive,  which 
of  the  comparative,  and  which  of  the  superlative  degree : — 

Braver,  more  acceptable,  eldest,  less  useful,  worst,  better,  most 
honorable,  strongest,  sadder,  more  plentiful,  least  worthy,  last, 
good. 


ETYxMOLOGY — ADJECTIVES PARSING.  67 

4.  Compare  the  following  adjectives: — 

Bright,  active,  handsome,  wise,  sad,  able,  jiLst,  diligent,  beautiful, 
good,  excellent,  dutiful,  little,  serene,  fruitful,  large,  warm,  lovely. 

5.  Apply  limiting  adjectives  to  five  common  nouns;  qualifying  ad- 
jectives in  the  positive  degree  to  five  common  nouns  of  the  masculine 
gender ;  qualifying  adjectives  in  the  comparative  degree  to  five  common 
nouns  of  the  feminine  gender ;  qualifying  adjectives  in  the  superlative 
degree  to  five  nouns  of  the  neuter  gender,  plural  number^ 


67.  Models  for  Parsing. 

1.  In  parsing  an  adjective, — 

(1.)  Tell  what  part  of  speech  it  is.    Why? 

(2.)  Tell  what  kind  of  adjective.     Why? 

(3.)  Compare  it,  and  give  the  degree  (if  a  qualifying  adjective). 

(4.)  Tell  to  what  noun  it  belongs. 

(5.)  Give  the  rule. 

2.  The  faithful  man  will  be  rewarded. 

Faithful  is  an  adjective;  it  is  used  to  limit  or  qualify  a  noun ;  qua- 
lifying,— it  denotes  quality;  compared, — positive,  faithful, 
comparative,  more  faithful,  superlative,  most  faithful;  in 
the  positive  degree;  and  belongs  to  man,  according  to  Eule 
V. :  "  An  adjective  or  a  participle  must  belong  to  some 
noun  or  pronoun." 

3.  Her  house  is  larger  than  mine. 

Larger  .  isan  adjective  (why?) ;  qualifying  (why?) ;  compared, — posi- 
tive, large,  comparative,  larger,  superlative,  largest;  in  the 
comparative  degree ;  it  shows  that  one  of  two  objects  has 
a  higher  degree  of  the  quality  than  the  other ;  and  belongs 
to  house,  according  to  Rule  V. 

4.  She  is  worthy  of  the  highest  praise. 

Worthy  is  an  adjective  (why?) ;  qualifying  (why?) ;  compared, — 
positive,  worthy,  comparative,  worthier,  superlative,  wor- 
thiest; in  t\iQ  positive  degree,  and  belongs  to  she.    Eule  V. 

Highest  isan  adjective  (why?) ;  qualifying  (why?) ;  compared, — posi- 
tive, high,  comparative,  higher,  superlative,  highest;  in  the 
superlative  degree ;  it  shows  the  highest  degree  of  the  qua- 
lity ;  and  belongs  to  praise,  according  to  Rule  V. 


68  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

The  ...  is  a  definite  article  (why?),  and  as  a  limiting  adjective  it 
belongs  to  praise,  according  to  Eule  V. 

5.  Three  birds  were  killed. 

Three . .  is  a  numeral  adjective  (why?) ;  limiting  (why?) ;  it  belongs 
to  birds,  according  to  Rule  V. 

6.  Give  me  this  apple,  and  I  will  give  you  that 

This  .  .  is  a  pronominal  adjective,  singular  number  (59,  6,  2),  and 
limits  apple,  according  to  Rule  V. 

That  .  .  is  a  pronominal  adjective,  singular  number,  and  is  used  to 
limit  the  noun  apple,  understood ; — or  it  is  used  as  a  7ioun, 
instead  of  apple,  of  the  third  person,  sitigular  7iumber,  neuter 
gender,  objective  case,  and  is  the  object  of  the  verb  give, 
according  to  Rule  VIII. 

7.  The  field  of  combat  fills  the  young  and  bold; 
The  solemn  council  best  becomes  the  old. — Pope. 

Toungr .  is  an  adjective;  it  belongs  to  persons,  understood;  or  it  is 
used  as  a  noun,  of  the  third  person,  plural  number,  masculine 
gender,  objective  case,  and  is  the  object  of  fills,  according  to 
Rule  VIII. 

Point  out  the  ADJECTIVES  in  the  following  examples,  and  parse  them 
according  to  the  above  forms : —  ^ 

The  passionate  are  like  men  standing  on  their  heads ;  they  see^ 
all  things  the  wrong  way. 

There  are  two  ways  of  arriving  at  the  highest  personal  liberty; 
one  is  to  have  few  wants,  and  the  other  is  to  have  abundant  means 
of  satisfying  them. 

Shining  characters  are  not  always  the  most  agreeable. 

Mental  pleasures  never  cloy ;  unlike  those  of  the  body,  they  are 
increased  by  repetition. 

The  beautiful  strikes  us  as  much  by  its  novelty  as  the  deformed 
itself. — Burke. 

Stone  walls  do  not  a  prison  make, 

Nor  iron  bars  a  cage. 
Minds  innocent  and  quiet  take 
That  for  a  hermitage. 

9.  Parse  the  nouns  and  the  adjectives  in  the  following  examples: 

Rarely  in  public  office,  he  (Rufus  Choate)  was  still  a  public 
man  in  the  largest  sense ;  all  were  proud  of  him.  The  old  honored 
him,  the  young  loved  him,  and  both  old  and  young  admired  him. 


ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS.  69 

How  sweetly  come  the  holy  psalms 

From  saints  and  martyrs  down, — 
The  waving  of  triumphal  palms 

Above  the  thorny  crown  ! 
The  choral  praise,  the  chanted  prayers 

From  harps  by  angels  strung. 
The  hunted  Cameron's  mountain  airs, 

The  hymns  that  Luther  sung ! —  Whittier. 


A 

PKONOUNS. 

68.  Definitions  and  Distinctions. 

A  pronoun  is  a  word  which  takes  the  place  of  a  noun. 

Ex. — The  farmel  ploughs  his  field ;  he  reaps  his  wheat,  and  gathers  it 
into  his  barn. 

1.  The  pronoun  takes  the  place  of  the  noun,  not  merely  to  be  a 
substitute  for  it,  or  to  avoid  a  disagreeable  repetition,  but  to  repre- 
sent it  in  some  important  relation. 

Sometimes  it  is  used  to  avoid  repetition,  as  -when  a  noun  in  the  third  per- 
son, with  its  modifications,  would  occur  frequently  in  a  sentence;  sometimes 
it  is  employed  to  avoid  misapjirehemion  or  ambiguity,  as  when  the  first  or  the 
second  person  becomes  the  object  spoken  o/ (39,  8,  Rem.);  sometimes  to  in- 
troduce an  adjective  expression  to  modify  the  noun,  as  when  by  means  of  a 
relative  and  its  clause  we  restrict  the  meaning  of  a  noun;  sometimes  to  repre- 
sent the  noun  as  the  subject  o^  inquiry,  as  when  the  interrogatives  are  used. 

2.  The  relations  which  the  pronoun  may  represent  are, — 
(a.)  That  of  the  object  spoken  of  to  the  speaker. 

In  this  relation  the  object  may  be  either  the  speaker  himself,  the  one 
spoken  to,  or  the  one  spoken  of.  Hence  the^rs^,  the  second,  and  the  third 
2)er8on  (39,  8),  and  the  pronouns  /,  thou,  and  he,  she,  it;  and  hence,  too,  tho 
name  j^ersonal. 

(6.)  That  of  the  object  to  some  modifying  circumstances. 

Ex. — A  fortress  which  stands  on  a  hill  is  a  conspicuous  object. 

Here  we  employ  the  pronoun  which,  incidentally  to  denote  the  object  fort- 
ress, but  chiefly  to  join  to  it  the  circumstance  of  its  position  as  that  which 
renders  it  conspicuous.  Hence  the  pronouns  who,  which,  that,  and  what;  and 
hence,  too,  the  name  relative. 

(o.)  That  of  an  object  to  the  r^peaker  as  an  inquirer. 


70     '  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Here,  again,  the  object  is  incidentally  represented  by  the  pronoun  (its  nam« 
being  unknown),  and  that  for  the  special  purpose  of  making  it  a  subject  of  in- 
quiry.   Hence  we  have  Who?   Which?  and  What?  a,ndii\iQ  na^mQ  interrogative. 

(d.)  That  of  the  object  to  the  speaker,  as  something  known  or  unknown, 
mentioned  or  not  mentioned. 

The  personal  pronouns  of  the  third  person,  and  all  the  relative  pronouns, 
are  employed  when  an  object  is  supposed  to  be  not  only  known,  but  to  have 
been  previously  mentioned.  The  personal  pronouns  of  the  first  and  the  second 
person  are  used  when  the  object  is  known  (by  its  presence)  but  has  not 
(necessarily)  been  previously  mentioned.  The  interrogative  pronouns  are  used 
when  the  object  is  neither  known  nor  has  been  pjreviously  mentioned. 

3.  The  antecedent  is  the  noun  or  substantive  ex- 
pression for  which  a  pronoun  stands. 

Ex. — The  world  in  which  they  are  placed,  opens  with  all  its  wonders 
upon  their  eyes. 

4.  The  antecedent  may  he  a  phrase  ot  an  entire  proposition. 
Ex. — To  believe  the  report,  which  is  the  thing  you  desire,  would  be 

ofTensive  to  one  of  the  noblest  of  men.     The  servant  opened  the  window, 
which  was  strictly  forbidden. 

The  term  antecedent,  however,  usually  means  something  more  than  the 
noun  which  the  pronoun  represents;  it  denotes  the  leading  term  of  a  rela- 
tion, and  implies  a  subsequent  term.  Hence  it  is  more  especially  used  in  the 
case  of  a  relative  pronoun,  which  is  employed  to  show  a  relation  between  its 
antecedent  noun  and  some  following  circumstance.  The  personal  pronoun 
bears  no  such  syntactical  relation  to  its  antecedent. 

5.  The  object  represented  by  tlie  personal  pronouns  of  the  first 
and  the  second  person  is  ahvays  supposed  to  be  present,  and,  con- 
sequently, the  antecedent  noun  is  seldom  given ;  that  of  the  third 
person  is  usually  expressed.  Sometimes,  however,  a  personal  or  an 
interrogative  pronoun  is  employed  without  an  antecedent,  and  so 
limited  by  a  relative  and  its  clause  as  to  give  to  the  whole  the 
effect  of  a  single  name. 

Ex. — "He  who  sways  the  minds  of  men  by  his  eloquence,"  i.e.  the  orator, 
"exerts  the  highest  human  power."  "Who,  that  marks  the  fire  still 
sparkling  in  each  eye,  but  would  deem  their  bosoms  burned  anew?" 

6.  Sometimes  the  antecedent  pronoun,  in  such  cases,  is  omitted, 
or  is  included  in  the  relative. 

Ex.—"  Who  would  be  free,  themselves  must  strike  the  blow ;"  that  is, 
they  who.     "  Who  steals  my  purse  steals  trash ;"  that  is,  he  who. 

7.  The  pronoun  stands  not  merely  for  a  noun,  but  for  a  noun  in 
its  syntactical  relation,  and  also  as  restricted  by  modifying  words. 


ETYMOLOGY — PERSONAL   PRONOUNS.  71 

Ex. — "  We  saw  tlie  little  deformed  boy  who  watched  at  the  gate,  and 
pitied  him ;"  i.e.  the  little  deformed  hoy  who  watehed  at  the  gate. 

8.  The  antecedent,  as  the  term  indicates,  is  something  going  be- 
fore; but,  as  an  interrogative  pronoun  inquires  for  an  object  as  yet 
unknown,  the  antecedent  cannot  be  a  preceding  noun.  The  pro- 
noun, therefore,  must  agree  in  person,  number,  and  gender,  not 
necessarily  with  the  noun  in  the  answer, — ^the  subsequent, — but  with 
a  noun  which  the  speaker  conceived  to  be  the  name  of  the  object 
(however  erroneous  his  thought  might  be)  when  he  uttered  the 
question. 

Ex. —  What  is  there?    Aus.  A  friend. 

Here  tohat  evidently  refers  to  thing  or  animal,  being  equivalent  to  lohai 
thing.  It  would  have  been  who,  had  the  speaker  known  the  character  of  the 
object  inquired  for. 

69.  Classes  of  Pronouns. 

1.  Pronouns  are  divided  into  three  classes, — -personaly 
relative^  and  interrogative. 

2.  To  these  classes  some  grammarians  add  adjective  pronouns. 
It  is  true  that  certain  limiting  adjectives  may  take  the  place  of 
nouns ;  as,  this,  that,  these,  those,  each,  all,  &c.  So,  any  qualifying 
adjective,  preceded  by  an  article,  may  stand  for  a  noun  in  the  same 
way ;  as,  The  good,  the  wise,  the  prudent;  but  a  noun,  in  both  cases, 
is  properly  understood;  Hence  they  should  be  disposed  of  alike, 
— that  is,  as  adjectives  used  as  nouns. 

3.  To  pronouns,  like  nouns,  belong  Person,  Number , 
Ge^ider,  and  Case, 

70.  Personal  Pronouns. 

1.  A  personal  pronoun  is  used  both  to  represent  a 
noun,  and  to  show  whether  it  is  of  the  first,  the  second,  or 
the  third  person. 

2.  I  (plural,  we)  is  of  thej^rs^  person;  thou  (plural,  ye 
or  you)  is  of  the  second  person ;  he,  she,  and  it  (plural, 
they)  are  of  the  third  person,  masculine,  feminine,  and 
neuter,  respectively. 

3.  The  personal  pronouns  of  the  first  and  the  second  person 


72  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

represent  the  speaker  or  the  hearer.  The  gender  is  supposed  to  be 
known,  and  is  not  indicated  by  the  form  of  the  pronoun ;  while  that 
of  the  third  person  is  represented  by  one  of  the  forms  he,  she,  or  it. 

4.  It  is  often  used  in  a  vague  sense,  as  the  subject  of  verbs  de- 
scriptive of  the  weather ;  as,  "  It  rains."  "  It  thunders."  It  is  used 
as  an  expletive, — (1)  as  the  object  of  a  verb ;  as,  "  Come  and  trip  it 
as  you  go;"  (2)  to  introduce  a  sentence  whose  subject  is  placed 
after  the  predicate,  "/^fis  pleasant  to  see  the  sun."  "/j5  has  been 
ascertained  that  water  is  composed  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen."  It  is 
used  as  subject  to  represent  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  as  attribute,  of  any 
number,  gender,  or  person;  as,  "It  is  /."  "It  is  they."  "It  is 
James."     "  It  is  she." 

5.  Formerly,  thou  was  used  in  addressing  a  single  individual, 
and  a  corresponding  form  of  the  verb  was  used ;  as,  "  Thou  singest;" 
but  gradually  you  has  come  to  take  its  place,  till  the  use  of  thou, 
except  in  the  solemn  or  poetic  style,  is  now  wholly  discontinued. 
You,  therefore,  is  both  singular  and  -plural  in  its  application,  but 
the  verb  does  not  change  its  form ;  it  invariably  takes  the  plural 
form;  as,  "You  (meaning  one)  write,"  not  ivritest. 

6.  The  compound  personal  pronouns  are, — first  person, 
myself  (plural,  ourselves) ;  second  person,  thyself,  yourself 
(plural,  yourselves)  ;  third  person,  (masculine)  himself,  (femi- 
nine) herself  (neuter)  itself  (plural,  themselves). 

7.  The  compound  personal  pronouns  are  sometimes,  but  seldom, 
used  as  the  subject  of  a  proposition,  though  they  are  often  used  in 
apposition  with  it. 

Ex.— He  hiTnself  knows  not  whereof  he  affirms. 

8.  When  used  as  the  object  of  a  transitive  verb,  they  are  called 
reflexive,  because  the  act  of  the  agent  falls  back  upon  himself. 

Ex. — The  boy  struck  himself. 

71.  Exercise. 

1.  Substitute  the  nouns  and  their  modifying  words  for  tlie  pronouns 
in  the  following  sentences: — 

At  this  time,  the  commander  of  the  American  forces  and  his 
army  took  post  at  Harlem ;  he  now  sought  to  ascertain  the  state  of 
his  enemy's  forces  on  Long  Island.  Captain  Nathan  Hale  volun- 
teered his  services ;  h^  entered  the  British  army  in  disguise.    On  his 


ETYMOT.OGY — PRONOUNS — DECLENSION.  73 

return,  he  was  apprehended  and  sent  to  the  cruel  Marshal  Cunning- 
ham, by  ivhom  he  was  ordered  to  execution  without  a  trial. 

Edward  carelessly  lost  his  books  on  his  way  to  school ;  he  tried 
to  excuse  himself  to  his  teacher  for  his  deficiency  in  his  lessons, 
but  she  required  him  to  prepare  them  after  school,  and  recite  them 
lo  her. 


f. 


■^2.  Declension  of  tlie  Personal  Pronouns. 

1.  The  personal  pronouns  are  thus  declined: — 


FiEST  Peeson. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

Nom. 

I, 

We, 

Fos. 

My  or  mine. 

Our  or  ours, 

Obj. 

Me, 
Second  Person. 

Us. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

Nom. 

Thou, 

Ye  or  you, 

Fos. 

Thy  or  thine. 

Your  or  yours, 

Obj. 

Thee, 

You. 

Third  Person,  Masculine. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

Nom. 

He, 

They, 

Fos. 

His, 

Their  or  theirs. 

Obj. 

Him, 

Them. 

Third  Person,  Feminine. 

Singular. 

Phiral. 

Nom. 

She, 

They, 

Fos. 

Her  or  hers, 

Their  or  theirs. 

Obj. 

Her, 

Them. 

Third  Person,  Neuter. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

Nom. 

It, 

They, 

Fos. 

ite, 

Their  or  theirs, 

Obj. 

It, 

Them. 

74  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


First  Person. 

Nom, 

Singular. 

Myself, 

Plural. 

Ourselves, 

ObJ. 

Myself, 
Second  Person. 

Ourselves. 

Nom. 

Pof 

Singular. 

Thyself,  yourself, 

Plural. 

Yourselves, 

Obj\ 

Thyself, 

Yourselves. 

Third  Person. 

Singular. 
Masc.                 Fern.              Neut. 

Nom.        Himself,      Herself,      Itself, 

Pn- 

Plural. 

Themselves, 

Obj.         Himself,      Herself,      Itself, 

Themselves. 

2.  Of  the  possessives,  my,  thy,  her,  our,  your,  their,  are  used  when 
the  noun  is  expressed ;  mine,  thine,  hers,  ours,  yours,  and  theirs  (in 
modern  style),  when  it  is  understood,  and  the  latter  must  be 
changed  to  the  former  whenever  the  noun  is  supplied.  "  That  book 
is  yours;  this  is  mine."  "That  book  is  your  book;  this  is  my 
book." 

3.  When  mine,  thine,  &c.  are  used  as  in  the  above  example,  they  seem  to 
perform  a  double  office :  first,  to  represent  the  speaker,  the  hearer,  or  the  person 
spoken  of,  as  a  possessor;  and,  secondly,  like  other  limiting  or  qualifying 
words,  when  the  noun  is  understood,  to  represent  or  stand  for  that  noun,  not 
as  a  pronoun  does,  but  as  an  adjective  (69,  2).  Thus,  we  say,  "This  [book] 
is  an  arithmetic  ,•  that  [book]  is  a  geography."  "  The  violent  [persons]  take 
it  by  force."  "Mine  [my  task]  was  an  easy  task."  Properly,  neither  of  the 
above  words  is  a  noun.  The  first  three  are  adjectives  used  to  limit  the  noun 
understood,  which  follows  them,  and  the  last  a  personal  pronoun  in  the  pos- 
sessive case,  used  to  limit  the  noun  taah,  understood.  If  it  is  proper  to  say 
that  this,  that,  or  violent  is  used  as  a  noun,  it  is  equally  so  of  the  word  mine, 
not  in  its  pronominal,  but  in  its  adjective  office.  It  is  then,  strictly,  a  pro- 
noun in  the  possessive,  governed  by  some  noun  understood,  but  may,  like  an 
adjective,  be  parsed  as  that  noun,  in  the  nominative  or  the  objective  case. 


73.  Exercise. 

1.  In  parsing  a  pronoun, — 

(1.)  Tell  what  part  of  speech  it  is.    Why? 


ETYMOLOGY — PEESONAL   PRONOUNS.  75 

(2.)  Tell  what  kind  of  pronoun.    Why? 

(3.)  Tell  what  its  antecedent  is.    Why? 

(4.)  Decline  it. 

(5.)  Give  the  person,  number,  gender.    Why? 

(6.)  Rule  for  person,  number,  gender.    Why? 

(7.)  Case  and  construction. 

(8.)  Rule  for  construction. 

Note. — In  parsing,  let  the  pupil  follow  this  order,  and,  as  soon  as  possible, 
.  without  any  question  from  the  teacher.     The  pronoun  is  parsed  very  much 
like  the  noun. 

2.  Study  the  following  models  for  parsing : — 
David  brought  his  book,  and  laid  it  on  the  table. 

His  .  is  ^pronoun  ;  it  takes  the  place  of  a  noun ;  personal;  it  is  used 
both  to  represent  a  noun,  and  to  show  whether  it  is  of  the  first, 
the  second,  or  the  third  person;  it  refers  to  David  for  its 
antecedent ;  (singular,  nominative  he,  possessive  his,  objective 
him;  plural,  nominative  they,  possessive  their  ox  theirs,  objec- 
tive them;)  it  is  of  the  third  person,  singular  number,  masmi- 
line  gender,  because  its  antecedent  is  (Rule  III. :  "  A  pro- 
noun must  agree  with  its  antecedent  in  gender,  number,  and 
person^^) ;  possessive  case,  and  is  used  to  limit  tool:,  by  denoting 
possession,  according  to  Rule  VII.     (Repeat  it. ) 

It  ...  is  a  pronoim  (why?) ;  personal  (why?) ;  it  has  book  for  its 
antecedent;  (decline  it;)  it  is  of  the  third  persoii,  singular 
number,  neuter  gender,  because  its  antecedent  booh  is  (Rule 
III.),  objective  case,  and  is  the  object  of  laid:  Rule  VIII. 
(Repeat  the  rule.) 

The  messenger  himself  revealed  the  treachery. 
Himself  is  apronoun  (why  ?) ;  compound,  composed  of  him  and  self; 
it  has  messenger  for  its  antecedent;  third  person,  singular 
number,  masculine  gender,  because  its  antecedent  is  (Rule 
III.),  nominative  case,  and  used  to  identify  or  explain  mes- 
senger, according  to  Rule  VI. 

3.  Parse  the  personal  pronouns  in  the  following  sentences: — 
Can  it  be  that  America,  under  such  circumstances,  can  betray 

herself?  that  she  is  to  be  added  to  the  catalogue  of  republics,  the 
inscription  upon  whose  ruins  is,  "  They  were,  but  they  are  not !" 
Forbid  it,  my  countrymen !  forbid  it.  Heaven ! — Story. 

It  is  a  noble  faculty  of  our  nature  which  enables  us  to  connect 


76  ENGLISH   GEAMMAR. 

our  thonghts,  our  sympathies,  and  our  happiness,  with  what  is  dis^ 
tant  in  place  or  time. —  Webster. 

His  praise,  ye  winds  that  from  five  quarters  blow, 
Breathe  soft  or  loud ;  and  wave  your  tops,  ye  pines. — Milton. 
Love  took  up  the  glass  of  Time,  and  turned  it  in  his  glowing  hands, 
Every  moment,  lightly  shaken,  ran  itself  in  golden  ssLnds.— Tennyson. 
Not  theirs  the  blame  who  furnish  forth  the  treat. 
But  ours  who  throng  the  board  and  grossly  esit.—Sprague. 
4.  Give  the  class,  the  person,  the  number,  the  gender  {when  it  can  be 
determined  by  the  form),  and  the  case  of  the  following  pronouns : — 

I,  he,  his,  hers,  mine,  you,  thou,  they,  them,  us,  w^e,  myself,  him- 
self, they,  herself,  me,  themselves,  ourselves,  my,  thee,  your,  thine, 
herself,  yourselves. 

74.  Relative  Pronouns. 

1.  A  relative  pronoun  is  used  both  to  represent  a  pre- 
ceding noun  or  pronoun,  called  the  antecedent,  and  to  con- 
nect with  it  a  dependent  proposition. 

Ex. — Those  who  wish  for  favors  must  assist  others. 

Kelative  adverbs  are  commonly  called  conjunctive  adverbs.  By  analogy, 
we  ought  to  have  conjunctive  instead  of  relative  pronouns. 

2.  The  relative  pronoun,  when  used  only  as  such,  follows  the 
antecedent ;  as,  "  All  that  I  have  is  yours ;"  when  used  both  as  a 
limiting  adjective  and  a  pronoun,  it  always  precedes  it ;  as,  "  I  will 
give  you  ivhat  money  I  have." 

3.  The  following  distinctions  will  show  the  difference  between  a 
relative  and  a  personal  pronoun : — 

(a.)  The  relative  refers  to  an  object  always  known,  and  either  pre- 
viously mentioned,  or  so  clearly  implied  as  to  need  no  mention ;  the  per- 
sonal pronouns  refer  always  to  an  object  known, — in  the  third  person 
to  an  object  previously  mentioned,  but  in  the  first  and  the  second  person 
to  an  object  not  previously  mentioned. 

(b.)  The  personal  pronouns  have  a  distinct  form  for  each  grammatical 
person ;  I  for  the  first,  thou  or  you  for  the  second,  and  he,  she,  or  it  for  the 
third.  The  relative  pronouns  do  not  change  their  form  to  reprasent 
person. 

(c.)  The  essential  difference  is  seen  in  the  relations  which  they  denote 
(see  68,  2),  and  in  their  use  in  construction.     The  personal  pronoun  may 


ETYMOLOGY— RELATIVE  PRONOUNS.        77 

represent  the  subject  of  an  independent  sentence, — tliat  is,  one  expressing 
a  thought ;  the  relative  shows  a  dependent  adjective  relation ;  as,  "  He  is 
present."  "Which  is  irai3ortant."  The  first  is  a  complete  sentence; 
the  second  needs  some  word,  as  measure  (which  is  important),  on  which 
it  may  depend. 


75.  Simple  Relatives. 

1.  The  simple  relatives  are  who,  which,  that,  and  tchcit. 

2.  Who  is  used  to  represent  ^erso^i^;  whicli  and  what, 

to  represent  things;  and  that,  to  represent  both  persons 
and  things, 

3.  The  antecedent  of  a  relative  pronoun  is  not  only  the  word  for 
which  the  pronoun  stands,  but  is  the  leading  or  antecedent  term  of 
a  relation,  of  which  the  clause  introduced  by  the  relative  is  the 
subsequent  term ;  it  is  that  on  which  the  relative  clause  depends, 
and  is  either  a  definite  or  an  indefinite  object. 

4.  Who,  which,  and  that  usually  refer  to  a  definite 

antecedent. 

Ex. — The  man  who  came.     The  liorse  which  died.     The  tree  that  fell. 

In  the  sentence,  "Who  steals  my  purse  steals  trash,"  who  refers  to  an 
indefinite  antecedent. 

5.  What  may  refer  either  to  a  definite  or  an  indefinite 
antecedent. 

Ex. — I  gave  him  what  money  he  wanted  (definite).  I  gave  him  what 
he  wanted  (indefinite). 

When  the  antecedent  is  indefinite,  the  relative  stands  alone,  some  indefi- 
nite word,  like  thing  or  things,  being  understood. 

6.  What  is  both  a  relative  pronoun  and  a  limiting  adjective,  and 
is  equivalent  as  adjective  to  that  or  those,  as  relative  to  which,  and, 
consequently,  has  a  double  construction. 

Note. — In  disposing  of  lohat,  we  should  not  parse  that  and  then  which, — 
two  words  not  given, — but  tohat  itself,  calling  it  a  relative  jironoiin.  (77,  6.) 

When  the  antecedent  is  definite,  what  should  be  parsed — (1)  as  an 
adjective ;  (2)  as  a  relative  pronoun ;  as,  "  He  gave  me  tvhat  books  I 
wanted."  Here  what  as  limiting  adjective  belongs  to  boots, — a^  rela- 
tive pronoun  relates  to  books.    When  the  antecedent  is  indefinite, 

7* 


78  ENGLISH   GEAMMAR. 

the  noun  "thing"  or  "things"  may  be  supplied,  making  this  case 
the  same  as  above;  or,  it  may  be  taken — (1)  as  an  adjective  in  the 
sense  of  that  or  those,  but  used  as  a  noun  (69,  2) ;  it  practically  then 
becomes  both  antecedent  and  relative ;  (2)  as  a  relative  in  the  sense 
of  which,  relating  to  itself  in  the  sense  of  thing  or  things;  as,  "He 
gave  me  what  I  wanted,"  that  is,  "  He  gave  me  what  (ant.  =  that) 
what  (rel.  =  which)  I  wanted."  The  two  methods  are  practically 
the  same.  The  former,  from  its  perfect  identity  with  the  case  of  a 
definite  antecedent,  will  be  the  more  easily  understood.     (77, 5,  6.) 

7.  Wbat  is, — 

(a.)  A  relative — (1)  when  it  can  be  changed  into  that  which;  as,  "It  is 
what  {that  which)  I  wanted;"  (2)  when  it  both  limits  and  relates  to  a 
noun ;  as,  "What  ore  was  found,  was  very  poor,"  =  That  ore  which  was 
found,  &c. 

(6.)  An  interrogative  pronoun  when  used  alone  (belonging  to  an  in- 
definite object)  to  ask  a  question ;  as,  "  What  [things]  do  you  want  ?" 

(c.)  An  interrogative  adjective  when  used  to  limit  a  noun  (a  definite 
object),  and  also  to  ask  a  question ;  as,  "  What  excuse  does  he  render  ?" 

{d.)  An  interjection  when  it  denotes  an  exclamation;  as,  "What! 
have  you  come  ?" 

(e.)  An  adverb  when  it  is  equivalent  io 'partly ;  as,  "The  year  before, 
he  had  so  used  the  matter,  that,  what  by  force,  vjhat  by  policy,  he  had 
taken  from  the  Christians  above  thirty  castles." 

8.  That  is, — 

(a.)  A  relative  only  when  loho  or  ivhich  can  be  substituted  for  it;  as, 
"  He  that  [who)  getteth  wisdom  loveth  his  own  soul."  "  What  private 
grief  they  have,  alas !  I  know  not,  that  (which)  made  them  do  it." 

(6.)  A  pronominal  adjective  when  it  limits  a  noun,  expressed  or  under- 
stood ;  as,  "  That  book." 

(c.)  A  subordinate  conjunction  when  it  joins  a  dependent  clause  to  some 
part  of  a  principal ;  as,  "  I  know  that  my  Kedeemer  liveth." 

9.  When  that  is  used  as  the  object  of  a  preposition,  the  latter  is 
always  placed  at  the  end  of  a  clause ;  and  that  must  be  changed  to 
whom  or  which  whenever  the  preposition  precedes. 

Ex. — It  was  James  that  I  depended  upon,  =  upon  whom  I  depended. 

10.  As,  by  an  ellipsis  of  the  relative,  after  such,  ma7iy,  or  same, 
seems  to  take  its  place,  and  may  be  regarded  as  a  relative,  though, 
properly  speaking,  it  is  never  a  relative. 

Ex. — The  Lord  added  to  the  church  daily  such  as  [were  those  who] 
should  be  saved. 


ETYMOLOGY — EEL  ATI  VE   PEONOUNS.  79 

76.  Compound  Relatives. 

1.  The  compound  relatives  are  tuhoso,  ichoever,  whoso- 
ever  J  whiGhever,  whichsoever  j  whatever^  and  ivhcdsoever, 

2.  These  are  formed  from  the  simple  relatives  by  adding  the  adverbs 
ever,  so,  and  so-ever. 

What,  on  account  of  its  double  construction  (75,  6),  has  been  erroneously 
regarded  as  a  compound  pronoun. 

8.  \%lioevei'  and  whosoever  refer  to  some  indefinite  antecedent, 
as,  he,  person,  any  one,  and  are  equivalent  to  any  one  who. 
Ex. —  Whoever  hopes  a  faultless  piece  to  see. 
In  all  other  respects  they  are  parsed  like  who,  ivhose,  whom. 

4.  Whichever  and  whichsoever  refer  to  a  definite  object,  to 
which  they  belong  as  adjectives. 

Ex. —  Whichever  way  you  take  will  lead  to  the  city. 
They  are  equivalent  to  any  —  which. 

5.  'ivhatever  and  whatsoever  belong,  as  adjectives,  either  to  a 
definite  or  an  indefinite  object,  and  relate,  as  pronouns,  to  the  same 

(75,5). 

Ex. — We  are  interested  in  whatever  occupation  you  follow.     Whatso- 
ever is  more  than  these  cometh  of  evil. 

They  are  equivalent  to  that  —  ivhich,  or  any  thing  —  ivhich. 

6.  The  relative  and  interrogative  pronouns  are  thus  declined : — 


Sing,  and  Flu. 

Sing,  and  Flu. 

Nom. 

Who, 

Which, 

Pos. 

Whose, 

Whose, 

Obj. 

Whom. 

Which. 

That  and  lohat  have 

no  variation. 

WJioever  and  ' 

declined  like  w'ho. 

11,  Exercise— Models  for  Parsing. 

1.  The  man  ivho  is  faithfiilly  attached  to  religion  will  be  upright. 
Who . .  is  a  relative  pronoun.     (Why?) 

( 1. )  As  a  pronoun,  it  has  man  for  its  antecedent ;  nominative 
who,  possessive  to  hose,  objective  to  horn;  plural  the  same; 
third  person,  singular  number,  masculine  gender,  because 


80  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

its  antecedent  is  (Rule  III.:  Repeat  it),  nominative  case, 
and  is  used  as  the  subject  of  the  proposition,  "who  is 
attached."     (Rule  I. :  Repeat  it.    See  172.) 

(2.)  As  a  relative  or  connective,  it  joins  the  subordinate 
proposition,  "  who  is  faithfully  attached  to  religion,"  to  the 
antecedent  man.  Rule  XV. :  "  Subordinate  connectives  are 
used  to  join  dissimilar  elements." 

2.  Cherish  true  patriotism,  whose  root  is  benevolence. 
Wbose  is  a  relative  pronoun.     (Why?) 

(1.)  As  a  pronoun,  it  hsi^  patriotism  for  its  antecedent; 
nominative  which,  &c. ;  third  person,  singular  number, 
neuter  gender  (Rule  III. :  Repeat  it),  possessive  case,  and 
is  used  to  limit  root,  by  denoting  possession.  (Rule  VII. : 
Repeat  it.) 

(2.)  As  a  relative  or  connective,  it  connects  the  subordi- 
nate proposition,  "  whose  root  is  benevolence,"  to  the  2ia\jQ- 
cedent patriotism.     (Rule  XV. :  Repeat  it.) 

8.  Compassion  is  an    emotion  of   which  we  should  never  be 
ashamed. 
Wbicta  is  a  relative  pronoun.     (Why  ?) 

(1.)  As  a  pronoun,  it  represents  emotion  as  its  antecedent 
(decline,  and  give  person,  number,  gender:  Rule  III.),  ob- 
jective case,  and  is  used  as  the  object  of  the  preposition  of, 
(Rule  XIII. :  Repeat  it:  197.) 

(2.)  As  a  relative  or  connective,  it  joins  the  subordinate 
proposition,  "of  which  we  should  never  be  ashamed,"  to 
the  antecedent  emotion.     (Rule  XV.) 

4.  Here  is  the  sofa  that  he  sat  upon. 
That . .  is  a  relative  pronoun.     (Why  ?) 

(1.)  As  a  pronoun,  it  has  sofa  for  its  antecedent  (decline, 
and  give  person,  number,  gender:  Rule  III.),  objective 
case,  and  used  as  the  object  of  the  preposition  upon.  (Rule 
XIV.    See  75,  8.) 

(2.)  As  a  relative  or  connective,  it  connects  the  subordi- 
nate proposition,  "  that  he  sat  upon,"  to  the  antecedent  sofa. 
(Rule  XV.) 

5.  I  have  ascertained  what  lesson  we  must  learn. 

T¥hat .  is  a  relative  pronoun,  used  also  as  an  adjective.     (1.)  As  an 
adjective,  it  belongs  to  lesson,  according  to  Rule  V.  (i72.) 


ETYMOLOGY — EELATIVE  PRONOUNS.       81 

(2.)  As  a  pronoun,  it  has  lesson  for  its  antecedent,  and  is 
of  the  third  person,  singular  number,  neuter  gender,  accord- 
ing to  Eule  III. ;  objective  case,  and  is  the  object  of  must 
learn,  according  to  Eule  VIII.  (i72.) 

(3.)  As  a  relative  or  connective,  it  joins  the  subordinate 
proposition,  "  what  we  must  learn,"  to  the  antecedent  lesson. 
(Eule  XV.) 

6.  I  know  ivhat  will  be  done. 

What .  is  a  relative  pronoun,  used  also  as  an  adjective. 

(1.)  As  an  adjective,  it  belongs  to  some  noun,  as  thing 
(what  thing) J  understood,  and  should  be  parsed  as  above 
(73, 6) ;  or,  as  an  adjective,  it  is  used  for  the  noun,  which  it  re- 
presents (55, 3),  in  the  third  person,  singular  number,  neuter 
gender,  objective  case,  and  the  object  of  know.   (Eule  VIII.) 

(2.)  As  a  pronoun,  it  relates  to  thing  understood,  or  to 
what,  its  representative,  for  its  antecedent,  and  is  of  the 
third  person,  singular  number,  neuter  gender  (Eule  III.); 
nominative  case,  and  the  subject  of  will  be  done.     (Eule  I.) 

(3.)  As  a  relative  or  connective,  it  connects  the  subordi- 
nate proposition,  "  what  will  be  done,"  to  thing,  or  to  what, 
its  representative.     (Eule  XV.) 

7.  He  has  lost  ivhatever  fortune  he  had. 

Parse  "whatever"  according  to  the  first  model  {6)  for  "what." 

8.  Whoever  fails  must  try  again. 

Supply  the  antecedent  (76,  3),  and  parse  as  in  Model  1. 

9.  Parse  the  relatives  in  the  following  examples: — 

A  dauntless  soul  erect  who  smiles  on  death. — Thomson. 
Call  imperfection  what  thou  fanciest  such. — Pope. 
Whoever  seeks  the  good  of  others,  will  himself  be  blest. 
Whatsoever  he  doeth,  shall  prosper. 
But  that  which  gave  the  brightest  lustre  not  only  to  the  eloquence 
of  Chatham,  but  to  his  character,  was  his  loftiness  and  nobleness 
of  soul.    He  loved  fame,  but  it  was  the  fame  that  follows,  not  the 
fame  that  is  run  after ;  not  the  fame  that  is  gained  by  the  little  acts 
that. bring  forward  little  men,  but  the  fame  that  a  minister  will  and 
must  wring  from  the  very  people  whose  prejudices  he  despises,  and 
whose  passions  he  controls. — Mahon. 

For  the  structure  that  we  raise, 
Time  is  with  materials  filled ; 
Our  to-days  and  yesterdays 

Are  the  blocks  with  which  we  build. — Longfdhw. 


82  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

10.  Tell  what  part  of  speech  "  that"  is  in  the  following  examples  (75»  8) : 

Thoughts  that  breathe  and  words  that  burn. 

That  is  the  same  man  that  we  met  before. 

I  do  not  deny  that  you  may  be  right. 

I  will  send  the  articles  that  you  asked  for. 

I  hope  that  that  boy  that  stole  that  purse  will  be  punished. 

He  said  that  that "  that"  that  that  boy,  that  sat  on  that  seat,  parsed 
yesterday  was  not  a  pronoun. 

It  is  not  from  my  lips  that  that  strain  of  eloquence  is  this  day  to 
flow. —  Webster.  ■/ 

78.  Interrogative  Pronouns. 

1.  An  interrogatiTe  pronoun  is  used  both  to  represent 
a  noun,  and  to  ask  a  question. 

Ex. —  Who  art  thou,  Lord  ?     What  shall  this  man  do  ? 

2.  The  interrogatives  are  who^  used  to  inquire  for  per- 
sons ;  which,  for  persons  and  things ;  and  what  (usually) 
for  things. 

Ex. —  Who  gave  thee  that  authority  ?  Which  house  does  he  live  in  ? 
What  have  I  to  do  with  thee  ? 

3.  When  a  definite  object  is  inquired  for,  what  and  which  are 
interrogative  adjectives  used  to  limit  the  name  of  the  object  in- 
quired for. 

Ex. —  What  books  do  you  want  ?     Which  road  shall  we  take  ? 

When  an  indefinite  object  is  inquired  for,  the  interrogative  takes 
its  place,  or  belongs  to  it,  understood  (59,  3). 

Ex. —  What  (thing)  do  you  want? 

The  difference  between  who,  which,  and  xohat  as  interrogatives  will  appear 
in  the  following  example,  in  which  who  asks  for  the  jiame,  which  for  the  indi- 
vidual, and  what  for  the  occupation. 

Ex. —  TTAo  did  that  work  ?  Mr.  Jones.  TTHcA  Jones  ?  John  Jones.  What 
is  he  ?     A  printer. 

4.  When  an  interrogative  sentence  is  quoted,  and  incorporated 
into  another  sentence,  it  loses  much  of  its  interrogative  character  ; 
the  interrogative  pronoun  becomes  a  connective,  and,  as  the  incor- 
porated clause  is  an  unanswered  question,  the  pronoun  refers  to 
some  person  or  thing  both  unknown  and  unmentioned.  It  may, 
therefore,  be  called  an  indefinite  interrogative  pronoun. 

Ex.—  Who  is  concealed  in  the  garden  ? 


ETYMOLOGY — INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUNS.     83 

The  name  has  not  been  mentioned;  and  although  he  may  be  a  familiar 
friend,  yet,  as  the  concealed  one,  he  is  unknown.  The  answer,  therefore,  must 
be,  "  I  do  not  know  tcho  is  concealed  in  the  garden."  Who  is  here  (1)  an 
indefinite  interrogative  pronoun,  third  person,  singular  number  (shown  by  the 
verb),  masculine  gender,  nominative  case,  &c.;  and  (2)  a  subordinate  con- 
nective, joining  the  subordinate  proposition,  "who  is  concealed  in  the  gar- 
den," to  knoio.  (Rule  XV.)  Compare  this  with  "I  do  not  know  Aim  who  is 
concealed  in  the  garden."  Here  tcho  should  be  parsed  as  a  relative  pronoun 
having  him  for  its  antecedent. 

5.  Besides  pronouns,  various  interrogative  adverbs  are  used  in 
asking  questions  (134,  7) ;  as,  Why?  Where?  When?  How? 

79.  Exercise. 

1.  Point  out  the  interrogative  pronouns  in  the  following  examples: — 
Who  has  learned  his  lesson  ?    Which  seat  do  you  prefer  ?    What 

have  you  found  in  the  garden?  For  what  are  you  punished? 
Whose  school  do  you  attend  ?  Who  went  with  you  ?  Whom  do 
you  follow  ?    Which  way  has  she  gone  ? 

2.  Tell  which  of  the  above  examples  are  pronouns,  and  which  inter- 
rogative adjectives.     (See  78,  3.) 

3.  Tell  which  of  the  following  pronouns  are  relative,  and  which  in- 
terrogative : — 

He  whose  image  thou  art.  From  what  fountain  flowed  their 
light?  What  title  dost  thou  bear?  Whose  genius  had  angelic 
wings.  What  readiest  way  would  bring  me  to  the  place  ?  Who 
found  the  flower?  I  am  he  whom  ye  seek.  He  found  the  book  for 
which  I  sent  him.  Of  whom  do  you  speak  ?  That  which  was  lost 
is  found. 

4.  Models  for  parsing  interrogatives : — 

Who  shall  separate  us  from  the  love  of  Christ  ? 

Wlio  .  is  2i  pronoun  (why?);  interrogative  (why?);  its  antecedent 
(subsequent)  is  not  expressed  (68,  8) ;  nominative  who,  pos- 
sessive whose,  objective  lohom;  plural,  the  same ;  third  person, 
singular  number,  masculine  gender,  because  its  antecedent 
(subsequent,  7io  one  implied)  is  (Rule  III. :  Repeat  it),  nomi- 
native case,  and  used  as  the  sub^'ect  of  the  proposition,  "  who 
shall  separate."     (Rule  I. :  Repeat  it.) 

Whose  books  have  you  found  ? 

Whose  is  an  interrogative  pronoun;  nominative  tvho,  &c.  [person, 
number,  and  gender  depending  upon  the  object  conceived  of 


84  ENGLISH   GEAMMAR. 

as  the  answer  (es,  8),  possessive  case,  and  is  used  to  limit 
boohs  by  denoting  possession.     (Rule  VII. :  Repeat  it.) 
What  seek  ye  ? 

Wbat.  is  2J1  interrogative  pronoun;  indeclinable;  third  person  {num- 
ber and  gender  depending  upon  the  object  conceived  of  as 
the  answer),  objective  case,  and  used  as  the  object  of  the  veyb 
seek     (Rule  YIII. :  Repeat  it.) 

What  lesson  shall  we  learn  ? 

What .  is  a  pronomhial  adjective,  used  interrogatively,  or  an  inter- 
rogative adjective,  and  belongs  to  lesson,  for  which  it  inquires. 

(RuleV.) 

I  know  not  who  is  there. 

Who  .  is  an  (1)  indefinite  interrogative  pronoun,  having  properly 
no  antecedent,  but  referring  to  some  unknown  person  pre- 
viously inquired  for,  third  person,  singidar  number  (shown 
by  the  verb),  masculine  gender.  {4ni,  6),  &c. ;  and  (2)  a  sub- 
ordinate connective,  joining  the  subordinate  proposition, 
"%ho  is  there,"  to  know.  (Rule  XV.) 
5.  Parse  the  nouns,  the  adjectives,  and  the  pronouns,  in  the 
following  examples  : — 

A  great  mistake,  which  is  too  common,  especially  among  those 
who  have  experienced  many  trials  and  difficulties  in  life,  is,  that 
happiness  is  to  be  found  in  rest.  But,  as  has  been  pointedly  re- 
marked, that  man  is  most  restless  who  is  most  at  rest. — Buck- 
minster. 

An  ill  book  well  written  is  like  poisoning  a  fountain  that  runs 
forever ;  a  man  may  do  mischief  this  way,  it  may  be,  as  long  as  the 
world  lasts.  He  is  a  nuisance  to  fiiture  ages,  and  lays  a  snare  for 
those  who  are  yet  unbofei. — Jeremy  Collier. 

Mark  but  mjf-fall,  and  that  that  ruined  me. 
Cromwell,  1  charge  tliee,  fling  away  ambition ! 
By  that  sin  fell  the  angels. — Shakspeare. 
Motionless  torrents !  silent  cataracts  I 
Who  made  you  glorious  as  the  gates  of  heaven 
Beneath  the  keen  ftill  moon  ?    Who  bade  the  sun 
Clothe  you  with  rainbows? — Coleridge. 
Ay !  Heaven  had  set  one  living  man 

Beyond  the  pedant's  tether ; 
His  virtues,  frailties.  He  will  scan 

Who  weighs  them  all  together ! — Holmes. 


ETYMOLOGY — VERBS.  85 


VERBS. 
80.  Definitions  and  Distinctions. 

^1.  A  Terb  is  a  word  which  expresses  being y  action j  or 
state;  as,  be,  read,  sleep,  is  loved, 

2.  It  is  the  characteristic  property  of  the  verb  to  affirm 
what  it  expresses.  Yet  the  being,  action,  or  state  may  be 
affirmed,  assumed,  or  used  abstractly, 

Ex. — George  runs.    George  running.     To  run. 

Thus,  -when  an  affirmation  is  made,  the  verb,  being  either  the  predicate  or 
copula  of  the  proposition,  is  ubq^l  predicatively,  and  is  said  to  hQ  finite;  when 
the  action  of  the  verb  is  assumed,  it  takes  the  construction  of  the  adjective,  or 
is  used  adjectively,  that  is,  is  joined  to  the  subject,  and  is  called  o. participle ; 
when  it  is  used  abstractly,  it  is  separated  from  the  subject,  and,  being  un- 
limited by  its  person  or  number,  it  is  said  to  be  infinitive  [unlimited)^. 

3.  Affirm,  as  here  used,  includes  an  absolute  declaration;  as, 
"Mary  learns;" — a  conditional  statement;  "If  Mary  learns;" — 
an  interrogation;  "Does  Mary  learn?" — a>  petition;  "May  Mary 
learn  ?" — a  command;  "  Mary,  learn." 

4.  If  a  word  is  a  verb  only  when  it  affirms  being,  action,  or  state,  neither 
the  participle  nor  the  infinitive  is  a  verb.  These  can  be  included  in  the  verb 
only  by  defining  it  as  expressing  action,  &c.  They  are  really  both  participles, 
being  derived  from  the  verb  and  partaking  of  its  meaning. 

5.  The  abstract  or  substantive  verb  is  the  pure  verb  Be,  called 
the  copula,  having  no  other  power  or  value  than  to  assert  some 
attribute  of  a  noun. 

When  the  attribute  expresses  a  quality  or  class,  this  verb  or  an  equivalent 
must  always  be  usedj  as,  "Lead  is  heavy;"  but  when  the  attribute  is  an 
action,  it  may  blend  with  the  verb  he,  and  then  both  become  one  word ;  as, 
"  The  sun  is  rising."  "  The  sun  rises."  The  combined  form  then  takes  the 
name  of  verb,  and  undergoes  inflections  to  represent  voice,  mode,  tense,  num- 
ber, and  person/  in  all  other  cases,  the  verb  to  he  undergoes  these  variations. 

6.  A  verb  is  called  attributive,  when  to  the  pure  verb  it  joins 
an  attribute. 

The  verb  to  he  is  attributive  whenever  it  is  used  to  assert  existence ;  as, 
"  There  xoas  a  man  sent  from  God."  When  thus  used,  the  verb  is  commonly 
followed  by  its  subject,  and  preceded  by  the  expletive  "there,"  which  serves 
no  other  purpose  than  to  introduce  the  sentence  and  indicate  this  peculiarity 
of  the  verb. 

8 


86  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

7.  Every  finite  verb  represents  some  person  or  thing  as 
acting  or  existing  in  a  certain  state ;  and  that  which  re- 
presents this  person  or  thing  is  called  the  subject, 

Ex. — Frank  plays.    She  sleeps. 

81.  Exercise. 

1.  Point  out  the  verbs  and  their  subjects  in  the  following  examples: — 
The  clouds  vanish.    The  vapor  rises.    The  plant  lives.    Flowers 

die.    Children  sing.    They  stand.    Can  you  see  ?    Here  they  are ! 
The  ice  melts. 

2.  Write  appropriate  verbs  for  the  following  nouns  as  subjects: — 

Samuel,  the  pen,  the  book,  flowers,  we,  oceans,  moon,  the  earth, 
forests,  the  king,  Victoria. 

3.  Write  appropriate  nouns  as  subjects  for  the  following  verbs: — 
Rules,  is,  thinks,  hopes,  learns,  shine,  grow,  dig,  revolve,  sits, 

fears,  blossom,  arise,  sink. 

4.  Point  out  the  verbs  on  page  —  in  your  Reader,  and  tell  the 
subjects. 

Note. — Let  the  teacher  assign  this  lesson. 

82.  Terbs  classified  by  their  Use. 

1.  Verbs  are  divided,  according  to  their  use^  into  transi- 
tive and  intransitive, 

2.  A  transitiTe  verb  receives  or  requires  an  object  to 

complete  its  meaning. 

Ex. — The  servant  opened  the  door.  What  walls  can  guard  me,  or 
what  shades  can  hide  [me]  ? — Pope. 

3.  An  intransitive  verb  neither  receives  nor  requires 
an  object  to  complete  its  meaning. 

Ex. — The  sun  rises.    The  horse  runs. 

4.  Verbs  may  be  divided,  on  account  of  their  relation  to 

the  subject,  into, — 

(a.)  The  abstract  or  substantive  verb  Be,  which  represents  no  attribute 
of  the  subject  whatever  (80,  5). 


ETYMOLOGY — VEKBS.  87 

(6.)  Attributive  or  mixed  verbs,  in  which  an  attribute  denoting  an 
action  or  a  state  of  the  subject  is  blended  with  the  copula;  as,  rum,  =  is 
running;  is  being  the  copula,  and  running  the  attribute. 

5.  Attributive  verbs,  including  also  the  copula  to  be,  have  been 
divided,  with  reference  to  the  subject,  into, — 

[a.)  Active  verbs,  or  those  which  represent  the  subject  in  an  active 
ptate. 

(6.)  Passive  verbs,  or  those  which  represent  the  subject  in  a  passive 
state ;  that  is,  in  such  a  state  as  to  receive  or  suffer  an  action. 

(c.)  Xeuter  verbs,  or  those  which  represent  the  subject  in  neither  of 
these  states ;  that  is,  a  state  in  which  it  neither  acts  nor  receives  the  effect 
of  an  action. 

Remark  1. — But  this  distinction  has  little  to  do  with  the  construction  of 
language.  It  is  the  relation  of  the  verb  to  a  succeeding  term,  the  object,  that 
renders  a  classification  important.  This  division  is  retained  in  the  dic- 
tionaries, and  the  learner  should  understand,  in  consulting  a  dictionary,  that 
17.  a.  =  verb  active,  after  a  verb,  is  equivalent  to  transitive,  v.  7i.  =  verb  neuter, 
to  intransitive.  Thus,  run,  fly,  walk,  though  they  represent  the  subject  in  a 
very  active  state,  are  marked  v,  n. 

Remark  2. — The  terms  transitive  and  intransitive  have  been  generally 
adopted  by  recent  grammarians,  as  best  suited  to  the  purpose  of  construction. 
Although  the  idea  of  an  act  originating  in  an  agent  and  "  passing  over"  to  an 
object  seems  inapplicable  to  such  verbs  as  have,  possess,  receive,  acquire,  and 
many  others,  still  the  terms,  as  defined  above,  are  liable  to  little  or  no  ob- 
jection. 

Remark  3. — The  subdivision  of  verbs  into  active-transitive  and  active-in- 
transitive is  not  only  needless,  but  partial  in  its  application.  The  distinction 
is  made  to  apply  exclusively  to  active  verbs ;  whereas  it  may  apply  as  well  to 
neuter  as  to  active  verbs.  In  the  sentence,  "  The  son  resembles  his  father,"  no 
one  will  maintain  that  resembles  is  any  more  an  active  verb  than  sleeps.  Yet 
it  is  transitive;  and,  to  be  consistent,  we  ought  to  have  neuter-transitive  and 
neuter -intransitive.  By  omitting  the  words  active  and  neuter  altogether,  we 
have  a  practical  division,  and  one  of  universal  application. 

6.  The   object    or    eomplemeMt  of   the    transitive   verb 

stands  as  an  answer  to  the  question    Whatf  or   Whomf 

with  the  verb. 

Ex. — The  ox  eats  {whatf)  hay,  grass,  oats,  corn,  &c.  The  boy  found 
(whomf)  his  father,  his  mother,  &c. 

To  determine  whether  a  verb  is  transitive  or  intransitive,  we  have  only  to 
use  this  test:  ask  with  it  the  question  What?  or  Whom?  and  if,  in  its  signi- 
fication as  used  in  the  example  in  question,  it  has,  as  answer,  a  noun  or  a  pro- 
noun meaning  a  different  thing  from  the  subject,  or  if  one  is  obviously  re- 


88  ENGLISH   GRAMMAK. 

quired  to  complete  the  meaning  intended,  it  is  transitive;   otherwise  it  Is 
intransitive. 

7.  When  the  noun  or  the  pronoun  thus  added  means  the  same 
person  or  thing  as  the  subject,  it  is  not  the  object,  but  is  a  predicate- 
nominative,  and  the  verb  is  either  intransitive,  or  transitive  in  the 
passive  voice.  All  such  verbs  perform  the  office  of  the  copula,  and 
are  hence  called  copulative  verbs.  These  are  be  [the  simple  copula), 
become,  seem,  appear,  stand,  walk,  and  other  verbs  of  position,  motion, 
and  condition;  the  passive  verbs  is  called,  is  named,  is  styled,  is 
appointed,  is  constituted,  is  elected,  is  chosen,  is  made,  is  esteemed,  is 
reckoned,  and  others. 

8.  A  transitive  verb  in  a  proposition  necessarily  implies  three 
terms, — a  subject,  a  predicate,  and  an  object. 

Ex. — Csesar  (sub.)  crossed  {pred.)  the  Kubicon  {obj.). 

An  intransitive  verb  requires  but  two  terms, — a  subject  and  a  predicate; 
as,  "  The  tempest  (sub.)  rages"  {j^red.). 

9.  Many  verbs  are  transitive  in  one  signification,  and  intransi- 
tive in  another. 

Ex. — It  breaks  my  chain.     Morning  breaks  in  the  east. 

AVhen  the  object  is  not  necessarily  implied,  it  is  better  to  consider  such 
verbs  intransitive,  and  not  transitive,  because  an  object,  in  some  other  pos- 
sible signification  of  the  verb,  may  be  supplied :  as,  "  She  sings  beautifully" 
(intransitive).     "  She  sings  soprano"  (transitive). 

10.  Some  verbs,  usually  intransitive,  become  transitive  when 
used  with  a  causative  signification. 

Ex. — The  train  usually  runs  at  the  rate  of  twenty-five  miles  an  hour ; 
but  they  ran  a  train  (caused  it  to  run)  at  the  rate  of  forty. 

Some  verbs  become  transitive  when  they  take  an  object  after  them  of  a 
kindred  signification ;  as,  "  He  ran  a  race."     "  They  played  a  game." 


83.  Exercise. 

1.  Tell  which  of  the  following  verbs  are  transitive,  and  which  in- 
transitive : — 

Anna  loves  her  motherj^^JIlie^olden  gates  open.  The  moon 
silvers  the  distant  hills,  ^ary  hSfound  her  ring.  Eleanor  writes 
poetry.  The  snow  meltsS-The  dl'v^tters  i>i£ak.  The  innocent 
lamb  dies.  The  child  play^^.  Th^rnigraut^fl<:iwers^loom.  She  re- 
ceived a  letter.     Does  Paul  live  thereT"' 


ETYMOLOGY — VERBS.  89 

2.  Write  an  appropriate  subject  and  object  for  each  of  the  folloioing 
verbs : — 

Rings,  learn,  find,  hide,  fears,  remembers,  inflicts,  receives,  lift, 
hears,  renews,  reviews,  write. 

Model. — The  sexton  rings  the  bell, 

3.  Point  out  the  transitive  and  the  intransitive  verbs  in  the  following 
examples;  also  the  subject  of  each  verb,  and  the  object^  if  it  has  one: — 

Oh,  spare  me,  that  I  may  recover  strength  before  I  go  hence  and 
be  no  more. 

Awake !  arise !  or  be  forever  fallen  ! 

Hannibal  passed  through  Gaul,  crossed  the  Alps,  came  down  into 
Italy,  and  defeated  several  Roman  generals ;  but  he  could  not  con- 
quer the  C'unt   ',  nor  take  the  city  of  Rome. 

Let  me  die  the  death  of  the  righteous,  and  let  my  last  end  be 
like  his. 

Hands  of  angels  hidden  from  mortal  eyes,  shifted  the  scenery  of 
the  heavens ;  the  glories  of  night  dissolved  into  the  glories  of  the 
dawn.  The  blue  sky  now  turned  more  softly  gray ;  the  great  watch- 
stars  shut  up  their  holy  eyes,  the  east  began  to  kindle,  and  soon  the 
whole  celestial  concave  was  filled  with  the  inflowing  tides  of  the 
morning  light. — Everett. 

The  shadow  of  departed  hours 
Hangs  dim  upon  thine  early  flowers ; 
Even  in  thy  sunshine  seems  to  brood 
Something  too  deep  for  solitude. — Henians. 

84.  Yerbs  classified  by  their  Form. 

1.  Verbs  are  divided,  according  to  their /o/'r?i,  into  regu- 
lar and  irregular. 

2.  A  regular  verb  is  one  which  forms  its  past  tense 
and  past  participle  by  adding  ed  (28,  2)  to  the  present 
tense. 

Ex. — Love,  lovec^,  \o\ed;  gain,  gainer?,  gainec?. 

3.  An  irregular  verb  is  one  which  does  not  form  its 
past  tense  and  past  participle  by  the  addition  of  ed  to  the 
present  tense. 

Ex. — See,  saw,  seen;  lorite,  ivrofe,  vjritten. 


90  ENGLISH   GRAMxMAR. 

4.  A  defective  verb  is  one  in  which  some  of  the  parts 
are  wanting. 

Ex. — May,  might;  shall,  should;  will,  would  (participle  wanting). 

5.  An  auxiliary  verb  is  one  which  is  employed  in  the 
conjugation  of  other  verbs. 

Ex. — Have,  in  have  loved ;  mil,  in  will  love ;  may,  in  may  love. 

6.  An  impersonal  verb  is  one  by  which  an  action  or 
a  state  is  asserted  independently  of  any  particular  subject. 

Ex.— It  rains.    It  snows.     It  lightens.     It  thunders. 

85.  Exercise. 

1.  Point  out  the  verbs  in  the  following  examples;  tell  whether  they 
are  regular  or  irregular,  transitive  or  intransitive.  (See  list  of  ir- 
regular verbs.) 

Where  shall  a  man  go  to  avoid  pain  and  sickness  ? 

If  thine  enemy  hunger,  feed  him ;  if  he  thirst,  give  him  drink. 

All  that  the  Father  giveth  me,  shall  come  to  me. 

Canst  thou  hind  the  sweet  influences  of  the  Pleiades  ?  or  loose 
the  bands  of  Orion  ? 

I  impeach  him  (Warren  Hastings)  in  the  name  of  the  English 
nation,  whose  ancient  honor  he  has  sullied. — Burke. 

Far  as  the  breeze  can  bear,  the  billows  foam. 
Survey  our  empire,  and  behold  our  home. — Byron. 

2.  Write  Jive  sentences  containing  regular  transitive,  and  five  con- 
taining irregular  transitive  verbs.  Draw  a  line  under  the  verb  and  its 
object. 

MODEL. 
REG.  TRANSITIVE.  IREEG.  TRANSITIVE. 

Mr.  Brown  has  incurred  a  great  debt.     The  child  led  the  blind  man. 

3.  In  the  same  way,  write  five  sentences  containing  regular  intransi- 
tive, and  five  containing  irregular  intransitive  vei^bs. 

86.  Properties  of  Terbs. 

To  verbs  belong  voicey  mode,  tense,  number,  and  jierson. 


ETYMOLOGY — VERBS.  91 

87.  Yoice. 

1.  Voice  is  that  form  of  the  transitive  verb  which  shows 
whether  the  subject  ads  or  is  acted  upon. 

2.  There  are  two  voices, — the  active  and  the  passive, 

3.  The  active  voice  represents  the  subject  as  acting* 
Ex. — John  struck  William. 

Here  Johi  is  the  subject,  and  John  performs  the  act. 

4.  The  passive  voice  represents  the  subject  as  acted 
upon, 

Ex. — William  was  struck  by  John. 

Here  William  is  the  subject,  but  he  does  not  act :  he  only  receives  the  act, 
or  is  acted  upon;  that  is,  is  passive,  which  means  suffering  or  receiving  an  act, 
the  subject  or  receiver,  meanwhile,  being  in  an  inactive  state. 

Only  transitive  verbs  can  properly  have  a  passive  voice. 

5.  Any  sentence,  having  for  its  predicate  a  transitive  verb,  may 
be  transformed  by  changing  the  active  to  the  passive  voice,  or  the 
passive  to  the  active.  The  same  meaning,  or  nearly  the  same,  will 
be  expressed  in  either  case. 

Ex. — The  locusts  devoured  (active)  the  grass.  The  grass  was  devoured 
(passive)  by  the  locusts. 

Strictly  speaking,  the  ideas  of  active  and  passive,  though  manifesting 
themselves  in  the  form  of  the  verb,  are  not  attributes  of  the  verb,  but  of  the 
persons  or  things  connected  with  it:  the  one  performs  the  act,  the  other 
receives  or  suffers  it.  If  the  active  one  is  made  the  subject  of  the  sentence, 
the  verb  is  said  to  be  in  the  active  voice;  if  the  passive  one  is  made  the  sub- 
ject, the  verb  is  said  to  be  in  the  passive  voice. 

6.  The  following  are  all  the  possible  cases  which  can  occur : — 
(a.)   One  and  the  same  person  or  thing  may  represent  both  relations, 

— the  active  and  the  passive, 

Ex. — He  struck  himself.  She  struck  herself.  It  destroyed  itself.  Yot% 
struck  yourself.     I  struck  myself.     (See  Personal  Pronoun,  70,  7,  8.) 

(6.)  Tivo  different  persons  or  things  may  be  employed  to  represent 
these  relations. 

(1.)  One  may  be  simply  active,  and  the  other  simply  passive. 
Ex. — George  struck   William,  :^:^  William  was  struck  by  George. 


92  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

(2.)  Each  may  be,  at  the  same  time,  both  active  and  passive. 
Ex. — They  struck  each  other,  =  They  struck,  each  [struck]  the  other.    (See 
183,  8.) 

(c.)  Three  different  persons  or  things  may  be  employed ;  one  active, 
and  two  passive. 

(1.)  One  may  act,  another  suffers  the  act,  while  the  third  stands  as 
that  to  which  the  act  is  tending. 

Ex. — He  (act.)  gave  me  (tending  to)  a  hooh  (pass.)  He  told  me  his  history, 
=  His  history  was  told  me  by  him,  =  I  was  told  his  history  by  him. 

(2.)  One  acts,  another  is  acted  upon,  and  thereby  transformed  or 
made  into  the  third  (187,  9). 

Ex. — They  made  him  an  officer,  =  He  was  made  an  officer  by  them,  =  An 
officer  was  made  of  him  by  them. 

In  this  case  there  are  but  two  different  persons  or  things.  The  second  and 
third  denote  the  same  individual. 

7.  The  use  of  the  passive  voice  enables  us, — 
(a.)  To  conceal  the  agent. 

Ex. — The  deed  was  performed,  I  must  not  tell  by  whom. 

(6.)  To  give  prominence  to  an  event,  or  to  stcUe  it  when  the  agent  is 
unknown. 

Ex. — Letters  were  introduced  at  an  early  period. 

(c.)  To  preserve  the  unity  of  a  sentence  which  the  use  of  the  active 
voice  would  destroy. 

Ex. The  ore  was  mined,  shipped  to  England,  and  smelted  in  less  than 

six  months. 

Observe,  here  are  at  least  three  diflFerent  agents. 

8.  We  use  the  active  voice  when  we  wish  to  make  the 
agent  prominent. 

Ex.— Moses  conducted  the  Israelites  out  of  Egypt. 

9.  Some  intransitive  verbs,  when  accompanied  by  the  preposi- 
tion following,  admit  of  a  passive  form. 

Ex. — They  laughed  at  him,  =  He  was  laughed  at. 

So,  when  a  verb  takes  two  objects,  one  direct  and  the  other  in- 
direct, the  latter  is  sometimes  made  the  subject  of  the  verb  in  the 
passive  voice  (i87, 12). 

Ex.— I  told  him  a  story,  =  He  was  told  a  story. 


ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — VOICE.  93 

10.  Certain  intransitive  verbs,  as  come,  arrive,  fall,  rise,  &c.,  ad- 
mit of  a  passive  form,  yet  with  an  intransitive  signification,  as  will 
be  seen  by  observing  that  the  agent  or  actor,  not  the  object,  is  the 
subject  of  the  sentence  in  either  form. 

Ex. — Babylon  is  fallen  (has  fallen). 

This  idiom  is  less  common  now  than  formerly,  and  may  bo  regarded  as  an 
imitation  of  the  French  or  the  German  form  of  similar  verbs. 

88.  Exercise. 

1.  Tell  which  of  the  following  verbs  are  in  the  active  voice,  and  ivhich 
in  the  passive: — 

The  moon  gives  a  pleasant  light.  The  book  was  written  by  my 
father.  The  song  of  the  bird  is  heard  in  the  grove.  Leverrier  dis- 
covered a  new  planet.  How  doth  the  little  busy  bee  improve  each 
shining  hour !  Knowledge  gives  power.  The  heavens  declare  the 
glory  of  God. 

2.  In  the  above  sentences,  change  the  verbs  in  the  active  voice  info  the 
passive,  and  the  verbs  in  the  passive  voice  into  the  active. 

3.  Write  five  sentences  containing  regular,  and  five  containing  ir- 
regular verbs  in  the  passive  voice. 

MODEL. 
EEG.  PASSIVE.  IRREG.  PASSIVE. 

Charles  I.  was  beheaded.  The  grass  was  mown. 

4.  Select  the  verbs  in  the  following  examples,  tell  whether  they  are 
regular  or  irregular,  transitive  or  intransitive,  of  the  active  or  the  passive 
voice  : — 

The  thunders  of  heaven  are  sometimes  heard  to  roll  in  the  voice 
of  a  united  people.  - 

In  the  battle  of  Solferino,  four  hundred  thousand  men  are  said  to 
have  been  engaged. 

I  care  not  what  mines  are  opened  in  the  mountains  of  Siberia,  or 
in  the  sierras  of  California ;  wheresoever  the  fountains  of  the  golden 
tide  may  gush  forth,  the  streams  will  flow  to  the  regions  where  edu- 
cated intellect  has  woven  the  boundless  network  of  the  useful  and 
ornamental  arts. — Everett. 

'Tis  finished. — Their  thunders  are  hushed  on  the  moors ; 

Culloden  is  lost,  and  ray  country  deplores : 

But  where  is  the  iron-bound  prisoner  ?    Where  ? 

For  the  red  eye  of  battle  is  shut  in  despair. —  Campbell. 


94  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

89.  Mode.         ^ 

1.  Mode  is  the  manner  in  which  the  action,  the  being, 
or  the  state  is  asserted. 

2.  Mode  does  not  show  the  manner  of  the  action  or  state,  but  the  manner 
of  its  assertion.  It  may  be  asserted  as  a  reality,  or  as  something  ivmgined 
that  may,  can,  or  must  take  place,  or  as  something  imagined  or  vupposed  vihiah. 
is  placed  under  a  condition,  or  as  something  desired.  The  manner  of  the 
action  or  state  is  expressed  by  means  of  limiting  words  j  as,  "  The  soldier 
fought  (a  reality)  bravely"  (manner  of  the  act) ;  "  The  soldier  may  fight 
(something  imagined)  bravely"  (manner  of  the  supposed  act). 

3.  The  infinitive  is  not  properly  a  mode  of  the  verb  (80,  2) ;  for,  since  it 
does  not  assert  action  at  all,  it  cannot  be  said  to  have  any  manner  or  mode  of 
assertion.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  participle.  In  fact,  the  infinitive  is 
a  participle,  partaking  of  the  properties  of  the  noun  and  the  verb,  as  the 
(so  called)  participle  partakes  of  the  properties  of  the  adjective  and  the  verb 
(80,  4).  It  is  inserted  here  in  conformity  with  established  usage,  but  may 
be  called  the  infinitive, — not  the  infinitive  mode. 

4.  There  are  commonly  reckoned  five  modes, — the  in- 
dicativey  the  potentialj  the  subjunctive,  the  imperative^  and 
the  infinitive, 

5.  The  indicative  mode  asserts  a  thing  as  actually 
existing.     (See  10,  below.) 

Ex. — James  loves.    William  was  struck.    Has  he  comef 

6.  The  potential  mode  asserts  the  power,  liberty,  per- 
mission,  necessity,  or  duty  of  acting,  or  of  being  in  a  certain 
state. 

Ex. — We  can  sing.  You  may  write.  Must  he  read?  They  should 
obey  the  law.     Can  you  do  it  ? 

7.  The  subjnnetiTe  mode  asserts  a  thing  as  conditional 
or  as  doubtful, 

Ex. — If  he  leave  me.    Though  he  slay  me. 

8.  The  imperative  mode  asserts  a  command,  an  en- 
treaty, or  a  permission, 

Ex. —  Write.     Go  thou.    Be  admonished. 

9.  The  infinitive  represents  the  action  or  state  as  an 
abstract  noun. 

Ex. — To  write.     To  be  seen. 


ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — MODE.  95 

10.  The  indicative  mode  is  used  in  principal  propositions,  and  is 
employed  to  represent  what  is  actual,  real,  or  absolute.  It  may  be 
used  in  interrogative  or  exclamatory  sentences. 

Ex. — Has  he  arrived  ?    The  villain  has  fired  the  dwelling ! 

It  is  often  used  in  subordinate  propositions,  but  always  to  represent  what 
is  actual  J  as,  "I  know  that  he  discovered  (actually)  the  plot." 

11.  The  potential  mode  is  also  used  in  principal  propositions, 
not,  however,  to  represent  the  actual,  but  that  which,  at  the  time  of 
speaking,  exists,  or  is  supposed  to  exist,  only  in  idea, — that  which 
is  merely  imagined  or  thought  of. 

Ex. — A  storm  may  arise.  {Actually  there  is  no  storm.)  Can  he 
write  ?    How  can  you  persist  ? 

The  ideal  act  or  state,  however,  is  supposed  to  have  some  relation  to  reality. 
It  can  become  a  reality ;  that  is,  there  is  no  impossibility  in  the  way  of  its 
realization;  no  ability  is  wanting:  it  may  become  a  reality;  that  is,  per- 
mission is  granted,  or  in  the  final  result  perhaps  it  will  be  a  reality  :  it  must 
become  actual;  that  is,  o.  necessity  or  an  obligation  exists.  This  mode  may 
be  used  in  interrogative,  exclamatory,  or  supplicatory  sentences ;  as,  "  Can 
he  leave  the  city  in  safety  ?"  "  He  may  be  assassinated."  "  May  the  truth  bo 
victorious !"  It  may  be  used  in  subordinate  propositions,  but  always  to 
represent  what  is  ideal  or  what  has  not  been  realized;  as,  "He  says  that  I 
may  (I  do  not  now)  attend  school." 

12.  The  potential  may  be  known  by  the  auxiliaries,  may,  can^ 
must,  might,  could,  would,  should.     (See  lis.) 

13.  The  subjunctive  mode  is  used  exclusively  in  subordinate  pro- 
positions, and  hence  its  name  ("sub,"  under,  and  "jungo,"  I  join). 
It  is  joined  to  the  verb  of  the  principal  proposition  by  the  subordi- 
nate conjunctions,  if,  though,  although,  lest,  except,  that,  save  that, 
unless,  provided  that,  and  some  others;  they  impart  the  idea  of 
doubt,  contingency,  or  conditionality. 

Whatever  of  futurity  may  be  implied  in  the  subjunctive,  is  to  be  accounted 
for  either  from  the  fact  that  any  thing  that  is  conditional  or  contingent  is  yet 
to  be  realized  (if  ever),  or  from  the  influence  of  a  suppressed  auxiliary,  such 
as  shall  or  should,  which  imparts  (though  understood)  the  idea  of  futurity ; 
as,  "  Though  he  (should)  slay  me,  yet  will  I  trust  in  him." 

14.  The  subjunctive  represents  an  ideal  act,  or  a  real  act  con- 
ceived only  as  an  idea,  and  places  it  under  a  condition  accompanied 
with  more  or  less  doubt.  As  to  a  distinctive  form  of  the  subjunc- 
tive, it  can  scarcely  be  said  to  have  any,  unless  it  be  found  in  the 
present  tense,  or  the  present  and  past  of  to  be;  and  in  all  such  cases 
(with  the  single  exception  of  were,  in  examples  like  "  If  it  werej^ 


96  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

"If  I  were"),  by  supplying  an  ellipsis,  they  may  be  referred  to  the 
forms  of  the  indicative  future  or  the  past  potential. 

Ex. — If  it  rain,  we  shall  not  leave,  =  If  it  should  rain,  &c.  Till  one 
greater  man  restore  {shall  restore)  us,  and  regain  {shall  regain)  the  blissful 
seat,  sing,  heavenly  muse. 

The  majority  of  writers,  at  present,  employ  the  forms  of  the  indicative 
present;  as,  "If  it  rains;"  "If  he  leaves."  Hence  the  subjunctive  may  be 
regarded  as  borrowing  its  forms  from  the  indicative  and  the  potential  mode. 
Indeed,  as  a/orm  of  the  language,  it  is  now  but  little  used.  "  The  subjunctive 
is  evidently  passing  out  of  use ;  and  there  is  good  reason  to  suppose  that  it 
will  soon  become  obsolete  altogether." — Geo.  P.  Marsh. 

15.  The  imperative  mode  is  used  in  principal  propositions.  It  is 
the  mode  which  expresses  will  or  desire.  It  may  usually  be  known 
bv  the  omission  of  the  subject. 

Ex. — Read  (thou) ;  vrrite. 

The  force  of  this  mode,  under  the  same  form,  depends  upon  the  relation  of 
the  parties.  If  a  superior  speaks  imperatively  to  an  inferior,  it  is  a  command ; 
if  an  equal  to  an  equal,  it  is  an  exhortation  or  an  entreaty;  if  an  inferior  to 
a  superior,  it  is  a  prayer  or  a  supplication.  The  imperative  is  made  subordi- 
nate only  in  a  direct  quotation ;  as,  "  Grod  said.  Let  there  be  light."  It  is  often 
elegantly  put  for  a  conditional  clause ;  as,  "  Let  but  the  commons  hear  this 
testament,  and  they  would  go  and  kiss  dead  Caesar's  wounds,"  =  Could  the 
commons,  &c.,  or,  If  the  commons  could  but  hear,  &c. 

16.  The  infinitive  is  used  in  abridged  propositions,  and  hence  is 
wholly  dependent,  being  incorporated  as  an  element  of  another 
proposition.  It  does  not  assert  any  thing ;  it  is  not  limited  by  the 
number  and  the  person  of  a  subject,  and  hence  its  name  (so,  2),  in- 
finitive, =  unlimited,  in  distinction  from  finite,  which  is  applied  to 
all  verbs  used  in  construction  with  their  subjects,  and  thereby 
limited  by  the  number  and  person  of  the  latter. 

17.  The  infinitive  is  used  as  an  abstract  noun ;  yet  it  may  be 
associated  with  the  subject  from  which  it  has  been  abstracted. 

Ex.— The  soldier  faints  (finite) ;  for  the  soldier  to  faint  (infin.).  He 
goes;  for  him  to  go;  we  told  him  to  go. 


90.  Exercise. 

Tell  the  mode  of  each  of  the  verbs  in  the  following  examples;  also 
the  kind  of  verb : — 

Where  wast  thou  when  I  laid  the  foundations  of  the  earth  ?  de- 
clare, if  thou  hast  understanding. 


ETYMOLOGY — PARTICIPLES.  97 

Then  said  Jesus  to  his  disciples,  If  any  man  will  come  after  me, 
let  him  deny  himself,  and  take  up  his  cross,  and  follow  me. 

We  can  converse  with  a  picture,  and  find  an  agreeable  companion 
in  a  statue. — Addison. 

Daughter  of  Faith !  awake,  arise,  illume 
The  dread  unknown,  the  chaos  of  the  tomb. — Campbell. 
And  out  again  I  curve  and  flow. 

To  join  the  brimming  river ; 
For  men  may  come,  and  men  may  go, 
But  I  go  on  forever. — Tennyson. 


PARTICIPLES. 
91.  Definition  and  Distinctions. 

1.  A  participle  is  a  word  having  the  signification  of  a 

verb,  but  the  construction  of  an  adjective. 

Ex. — We  found  him  lying  on  the  ground.  Having  written  his  letter, 
he  sent  it  to  his  friend. 

2.  The  participle  is  so  called  because  it  participates  or  partakes  of 
the  properties  of  the  verb  and  the  adjective.  It  is  the  attributive 
(so,  4,  5)  part  of  the  verb  alone ;  it  is  the  being,  action,  or  state  de- 
prived of  the  power  of  assertion ;  and  therefore,  when  joined  with- 
out the  copula  to  the  noun  whose  attribute  it  expresses,  it  must  be 
assumed  (not  predicated)  (205,  2),  just  as  an  adjective  is  assumed 
under  similar  circumstances.  It  has  the  meaning  of  the  verb  and 
is  modified  like  the  verb,  but  is  used  like  the  adjective. 

3.  The  participle  is  not  a  distinct  part  of  speech,  but  is  derived 
directly  from  the  verb, — the  present  by  adding  ing^  the  past  by 
adding  ed,  to  all  regular  verbs,  and  the  perfect  by  prefixing  to  the 
past  the  auxiliary  having. 

92.  Classes  of  Participles. 

1.  There  are,  properly,  two  participles, — the  present  and 
the  jperf ect 

Ex. — Reading,  having  read;  (being)  loved,  having  been  loved. 

2.  These  two  participles  correspond  to  the  present  and  the  perfect  tense  of 
the  verb.     They  are  used  in  abridged  propositions  :  the  former,  when  the  pro- 

9 


98  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

position  before  its  abridgment  was  in  the  present,  the  past,  or  the  future  tense-, 
the  latter,  when  it  was  in  either  of  the  perfect  tenses.  See  abridged  propo- 
sitions (167,  2). 

3.  There  are,  however,  three  forms,  commonly  called 
participles, — the  present,  the  past,  and  the  perfect 

Ex. —  Pres.  Past.  Perf. 

Active  Voice,   Loving,  Loved,        Having  loved. 

Passive  Voice,  (Being)  loved,      Loved,        Having  been  loved. 

4.  The  passive  participle  loved  does  not  necessarily  denote  past 
time.  Of  itself,  it  simply  denotes  the  reception  of  an  act,  complete 
or  incomplete.  The  time  depends  upon  that  of  the  verb  with  which 
it  is  associated. 

Remark  1. — The  form  called  the  past  participle  may  hare  been  once  the 
passive  participle,  having  the  same  form.  If  so,  it  has  now  wholly  lost  its  origi- 
nal signification,  and,  strictly  speaking,  has  lost  its  character  as  a  participle. 
It  never  partakes  of  the  properties  of  the  adjective;  it  is  never  used  to  limit 
a  noun,  like  that  part  of  speech ;  it  is  never  used  alone  in  participial  con- 
structions,— that  is,  where  the  participle,  with  the  words  depending  upon  it, 
takes  the  place  of  a  subordinate  proposition ;  it  is  always  found  in  the  predi- 
cate, either  of  complete  or  abridged  propositions,  and  is  connected  with  some 
form  of  have ;  as,  have  loved,  had  loved,  having  loved ;  it  has  an  active  signifi- 
cation, and  always  denotes  a  past,  completed  act,  and  belongs  as  well  to  in- 
transitive as  to  transitive  verbs. 

Remark  2. — The  passive  participle  of  the  same  form,  on  the  contrary,  is 
limited  to  transitive  verbs,  has  always  a  passive  signification,  may  denote  as 
well  present  as  past  time ;  it  may  have  the  participial  construction,  or,  with 
the  copula,  may  form  the  passive  verb  in  all  the  modes  and  tenses. 

5.  Participles,  in  their  appropriate  use,  take  the  place  of  de- 
pendent propositions,  and  consequently  represent  time  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  propositions  from  which  they  are  derived.  As  the 
verb  of  the  dependent  clause  dates  from  the  time  expressed  by  the 
principal  verb,  and  not  from  that  of  the  speaker,  the  participle  may 
be  present,  with  a  past,  a  present,  or  a  future  act. 

Ex. — I  saw  a  man  walking;  I  see  a  man  walking;  I  shall  see  a  man 
walking. 

So,  again,  the  participle  may  denote  a  past  act,  completed  at  the 
Ume  of  a  past,  a  present,  or  a  future  act. 

Ex. — Having  ploughed  his  field,  the  farmer  sowed,  sows,  will  sow,  the 
seed. 


ETYMOLOGY — PARTICIPLES.  99 

93.  Present  Actiye  Participle. 

1.  The  present  active  participle  denotes  an  action  or 
a  state  present  and  in  progress  at  the  time  represented  by 
the  principal  verb. 

Ex. — y^Q  find,  found,  or  shall  find  him  sitting  in  a  chair. 

2.  This  participle  always  ends  in  ing :  it  has  an  active  signifi- 
cation, and  may  be  used, — 

(a.)  To  abridge  a  dependent  proposition. 

Ex. — I  saw  a  man  walking  in  the  meadow,  i.e.  who  was  walking,  &c. 
(6.)  AS  an  adjective.     It  is  then  placed  before  the  noun. 
Ex. — The  roaring  billows. 

When  thus  used,  it  is  called  a  participial  adjective* 
(c.)  In  the  progressive  form  of  the  verb. 
Ex. — I  am  reading. 

(d.)  Oerundively,  to  denote  a  concomitant  act, — came  hoiv? 
Ex. — The  Son  of  man  came  eating  and  drinking. 
(e.)  As  a  noun, — (1)  Wholly  so,  with  the  preceding,  and  of  following. 
Ex. — The  reading  of  the  law. 

(2.)  In  the  construction  of  the  noun  with  the  modifications  of  the  verb. 
Ex. — The  eye  is  never  satisfied  with  beholding  the  stupendous  works 
of  the  Creator. 

3.  Though  this  participle  is  usually  active,  it  sometimes  has  a 
passive  signification.  When  an  object  is  undergoing  a  progressive 
change,  and  we  wish  to  express  this  as  a  continuous  reception  of 
the  act,  our  language  is  deficient  in  appropriate  forms.  Good 
writers  have  resorted  to  the  use  of  the  active  participle,  giving  it  a 
passive  signification. 

Ex. — The  house  is  building.  New  efforts  are  making  for  the  extension 
of  this  trade. —  Webster.     This  new  tragedy  was  acting. — Everett. 

Recent  writers  of  some  distinction  have  adopted  the  forms,  "  The  house  is 
heimj  built;"  "Preparations  are  beirifj  made."  It  is  not  the  province  of  the 
grammarian  to  dictate  as  to  questions  of  usage,  but  to  admit  and  explain 
whatever  good,  national,  and  reputable  usage  sanctions.  When  subjected  to 
these  tests,  it  must  be  said  of  such  forms,  that  they  are  by  no  means  adopted 
by  the  best  writers  as  good  English,  they  are  not  sanctioned  by  the  best 
grammarians,  and  they  are  of  too  recent  origin  to  be  regarded  as  idioms  of 
the  language. 


100  Ei^fGLISH  GKAMMAK. 

94.  Present  Passive  Participle. 

1.  The  present  passive  participle  denotes  the  reception 
of  an  act  at  the  time  represented  by  the  principal  verb. 

Ex. — He  lives,  lived,  will  live,  loved  by  all. 

2.  This  participle  may  be  used  as  an  adjective,  or,  with  the  copula, 
k>  form  the  passive  verb. 

Ex. — A  refined  taste  is  possessed  only  by  the  caliivated. 
When  preceded  by  being,  it  may  be  used  as  a  noun. 
Ex. — By  being  involved  in  one  wrong  act,  he  was  soon  lost  to  all  the 
ai)peals  of  his  friends. 

95.  Perfect  Participles,  Active  and  Passive. 

1.  The  perfect  active  participle  denotes  an  action  or 
a  state  completed  at  the  time  represented  by  the  principal 
verb. 

Ex. — Having  finished  his  speech,  he  sat  down. 

2.  The  perfect  passive  participle  denotes  the  reception 
of  an  act  past  and  completed  at  the  time  represented  by 
the  principal  verb. 

Ex. — Having  been  driven  from  home,  he  enlisted  in  the  army. 

3.  The  perfect  participles  are  never  used  like  the  present,  with 
the  copula,  to  form  the  predicate.  They  may  be  used  as  verbal 
nouns. 

Ex. — He  was  accused  of  having  obtained  goods  on  false  pretences. 

96.  The  Participle  predicated  or  assumed. 

1.  The  action  or  the  state  expressed  by  the  participle 

may  be  either  predicated  or  assumed  (205,  2). 

Ex. — The  horse  is  running  through  the  street.  The  horse  running 
through  the  street. 

2.  The  participle,  when  the  act  is  predicated,  constitutes,  with 
the  copula,  or  auxiliary  have,  a  form  of  the  verb.  The  present 
participle  is  used  in  the  progressive  form  (i09,  1)   or  imperfect 


ET  YMOLUG  Y—  ;Vi!:RB-7^PARTlCTpi.,Ji:S.  101 

tenses ;  the  past,  in  the  comj^leie  Jorm^  or  the  perfect ;  the  passive,  in 

the,  passive  form.  '    ^   .','■  ^      !  !  >   ;,  ^'  !«;'  C',\  \  ,'  '. 

Ex. — The  farmer  was  ploughing  his  field.  The  farmer  had  ploughed 
his  field.     The  field  was  ploughed  by  the  farmer. 

3.  The  participle,  when  the  act  is  assumed,  is  equivalent  to  a 
subordinate  clause;  as,  "The  boat  which  sails  on  yonder  lake  is 
propelled  by  steam,"  =  The  boat  sailuig  on  yonder  lake  is  pro- 
pelled by  steam.     (See  205, 2.) 

97.  Exercise. 

1.  Write  the  participles  of  the  following  verbs: — 

Find,  obey,  ride,  grow,  lie,  lay,  sit,  set,  lose,  loose,  load,  steal, 
arrive,  suppose,  happen,  come,  do,  take,  run. 

2.  Use  each  of  the  above  participles  in  a  short  sentence. 
Models. — Finding  his  mistake,  he  left.    The  source  of  the  river 

being  found,  the  travellers  returned  home.   Having  found  the  owner, 
he  restored  the  ring. 

3.  Point  out  the  participles  in  the  following  examples;  tell  what 
kind  of  participle  each  one  is,  and  nanie  the  verb  from  which  it  is 
derived: — 

Let  the  last  feeble  and  lingering  glance  of  my  dying  eyes  rather 
behold  the  gorgeous  ensign  of  the  Eepublic,  now  known  and  honored 
throughout  the  earth,  still  full  high  advanced, — its  arms  and  trophies 
streaming  in  their  original  lustre,  not  a  stripe  erased  or  polluted, 
nor  a  single  star  obscured. —  Webster. 

One  wave  rises,  and,  having  reached  its  destined  limit,  falls 
gently  away,  and  is  succeeded  by  yet  another. — Story. 
Then  shook  the  hills,  with  thunder  riven  ; 
Then  rushed  the  steeds  to  battle  driven ; 
And,  louder  than  the  bolts  of  heaven, 

Far  flashed  the  red  artillery. — Campbell, 
The  warriors  on  the  turrets  high, 
Moving  athwart  the  evening  sky, 

Seemed  forms  of  giant  height. 
Above  the  gloomy  portal  arch, 
Timing  his  footsteps  to  a  march. 
The  warder  kept  his  guard, 
Low  humming,  as  he  paced  along, 
Some  ancient  border-gathering  song. — Scott. 
9* 


102  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

'     -  •      -08.  Tense;.- 

1.  Teiise  primarily  denotes  the  time  of  an  action  or 
an  event,  in  its  relation  to  the  moment  of  speaking. 

2.  In  reference  to  the  time  of  speaking,  an  action  or  an  event 
may  he  present,  past,  or  future. 

Ex. — I  ride;  I  rode;  I  shall  Hde. 

3.  The  tense-form  of  the  verb  denotes  also  the  state 
of  an  action  or  an  event  with  reference  to  its  continuance, 

4.  An  action  or  an  event  is,*^^ 

Indefinite,  when  (i09, 5)  it  is  viewed  at  the  commencement  as  one 
event,  complete  in  itself,  without  reference  to  its  progress  or  completion, 
Ex. — I  love;  I  loved;  I  shall  love. 

Progressive,  when  (i09,  9)  it  is  contemplated  in  its  progress  as 
going  on,  without  regard  to  its  commencement  or  completion. 
Ex. — I  am  writing ;  I  was  writing;  I  shall  he  wiiing. 

Perfect  or  completed,  when  the  attention  is  directed  to  its  end 
or  completion,  without  reference  to  its  commencement  or  progress. 
Ex. — I  have  written;  I  had  written;  I  shall  have  written. 

Perfect  prog^ressive,  when  regard  is  had  to  both  the  progress 
and  the  completion,  and  not  to  the  commencement. 

Ex. — I  have  been  writing;  I  had  been  writing;  I  shall  have  been  writing. 

Remark. — As  the  passive  voice  denotes  tlie  reception  of  an  act,  it  expresses 
an  event  which  may  be  regarded  as  indefinite,  progressive,  or  completed  (110). 

99.  Divisions  of  Time. 

1.  In  each  of  the  three  divisions  of  time — the  past ,  the 
present,  and  the  future — we  distinguish  a  point  and  a 
period. 

Remark. — By  a  "point"  is  not  meant  the  least  possible  division  of  time, 
but  any  portion  taken  without  regard  to  its  duration.  Thus,  the  time  of 
speaking  may  really  be  a  period.  The  point  is  referred  to  by  tchen,  as,  the 
moment;  whereas  the  period  is  referred  to  by  while,  during  which,  how  long. 

2.  The  point  of  time  denotes  either  the  time  of  speaking,  as  the 
first  and  principal  point  of  reference,  or  a  specified  date  in  either  of 
the  periods. 

Ex. — I  have  written  a  letter  io-daij  since  twelve  d clock. 


ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — TENSE.  103 

Here,  observe  the  time  of  speaking, — now;  the  event, — jmst  as  to  the 
moment  of  speaking, — have  written, — but  present  as  to  its  completion  in  the 
present  period, — to-day  ;  also  a  specified  date, — twelve  o'clock. 

I  had  written  a  letter  last  month  before  the  15th. 

Here  we  have  tho  time  of  speaking, — noio;  the  past  event, — had  written; 
also  the  past  period,  including  the  time  of  its  completion, — last  month;  and 
the  specified  date, — the  15th. 

I  shall  have  written  a  letter  before  the  mail  leaves. 

Here  the  future  period  is  indefinite. 

3.  The  period  is  a  definite  or  an  indefinite  portion  of  time,  either 
past,  present,  or  future. 

Ex. — Last  month,  last  year ;  this  century,  this  age ;  next  week,  next 
quarter. 

The  indefinite  present  is  any  assumed  portion  of  time;  while  the  indefinite 
past  or  future  extends  from  the  present  without  limit.  It  is  important  to 
observe  that  a  present  period  includes  the  time  of  speaking,  and  also  the  time 
of  the  completion  of  an  act;  that  the  past  or  the  future  period  excludes  the 
time  of  speaking,  but  includes  the  time  of  the  completion,  and  usually  a 
second  date  to  which  the  latter  is  referred. 

4.  Tenses  which  receive  this  second  point  of  reference  are  called 
relative  tenses;  while  those  which  have  only  a  single  reference  to 
the  speaker  are  called  aZ>so/^<^e  tenses. 

5.  Each  division  has  two  tenses, — an  absolute  and  a  relative. 
There  are,  therefore,  six  tenses, — three  absolute  and  three  relative ; 
as  (absolute),  "I  xorite^^  "I  wrote^^  "I  shall  write;"  (relative), 
"  I  have  written"  (some  time  to-day  or  this  year),  "  I  had  written" 
(before  the  boat  sailed),  "  I  shall  have  written"  (at  noon). 

6.  The  absolute  tenses  take  their  names  from  the  division  of  time 
to  which  they  belong.  Thus,  we  have  the  present  tense,  the  past 
tense,  the  future  tense.  The  relative  tenses  affix  to  the  name  of  the 
tense  the  word  perfect,  which  refers  not  so  much  to  the  time  as  to 
the  completion  of  the  act.  Thus,  we  have  the  present  perfect,  the 
past  perfect,  and  the  future  perfect. 

Strict  analogy  would  give  us,  for  the  progressive  forms,  lam  writing,  I  was 
writing,  I  shall  be  writing,  present,  past,  and  future  imperfect  tenses. 

100.  Tenses  in  tlie  Indicative  Mode. 

The  tenses  of  the  indicative  are, — the  present ,  the  pre^ 
sent  perfect;  the  past,  the  past  perfect;  the  future ,  the 
future  perfect. 

These  tenses  have  their  characteristic  significations  only  in  tho  indicative 
mode. 


104  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

101.  Present  Tense. 

1.  The  present  tense  represents  what  takes  place  in 
present  time. 

Ex. — I  see;  I  am  seeing;  I  do  see;  I  am  seen. 

By  present,  here,  is  meant  the  present  of  the  speaker  or  the  writer.  The 
present  of  the  hearer  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  speaker ;  but  that  of  the  reader 
is  not  the  same  as  that  of  the  writer. 

2.  This  tense  may  be  used  to  denote  an  action  or  an  event, — 
(1.)  As  in  itself  complete  at  the  precise  moment  of  speaking;  as, 

"  I  see  it/'  "I  feel  the  heat;''  "  I  perceive  your  meaning ;"  i.e.  when 
the  event  is  instantly  perceived  and  mentioned.  Compare  with  (3), 
below. 

(2.)  As  incomplete  at  the  precise  moment  of  speaking;  as,  "I  am 
meriting;"  "The  boy  is  studying." 

(3.)  As  a  habit  or  a  citstom  in  a  lirnited  period  assumed  as  present ; 
as,  "  He  reads  seven  languages ;"  but  not  at  the  time  of  speaking, 
nor  forever. 

(4.)  As  &  universal  truth  during  an  unlimited  period;  as,  "Vice 
produces  misery;"  "God  is  just;"  and  that  regardless  of  the  time 
of  speaking,  and  forever. 

(5.)  As  ii present,  though  really  in  the  past  or  future, — to  repre- 
sent a  thing  more  vividly,  or  to  make  it  present  to  another  future 
event. 

Ex. — Hark  I  heard  ye  not  those  hoofs  of  dreadful  note?  Sounds  not 
the  clang  .  .  .  . — Byron.  They  rally,  they  bleed  (as  now  seen  in  vision) 
for  their  kingdom  and  crown. — Campbell.  We  ivill  pay  him  when  he 
comes  {shall  come).  Matthew  traces  {has  traced)  the  descent  of  Joseph; 
Luke  traces  {has  traced)  that  of  Mary. 

102.  Present  Perfect  Tense. 
1.  The  present  perfect  tense  represents  a  past  event 
as  completed  in  present  time. 

Ex. — I  have  seen;  I  have  beefn  seeing ;  I  have  been  seen. 

In  this  tense,  present-perfect,  observe  that  a  period — this  day,  this  year, 
the  present  age  (hence  the  prefix  ^jre«en<) — embraces  the  time  of  finishivg  an 
act  (hence  perfect),  and  also  a  subsequent  time  of  speaking  of  it  (hence  a 
present  and  a  past  loithin  the  period).     (See  99,  2,  3.) 

Note. — Be  careful  to  distinguish  present  meaning  the  period,  from  present 
meaning  the  time  of  speaking. 


ETYMOLOGY — TENSES.  106 

2.  This  tense  may  be  used, — 

(1.)  To  denote  an  act  completed  in  the  assumed  present,  with  only 
an  implied  reference  to  the  time  of  speaking. 

Ex. — "He  has  learned  his  lesson," — the /act  remains  till  now. 

(2.)  To  denote  an  act  spoken  of  as  completed,  but  continuing  till 
the  time  of  speaking,  either  in  itself  or  in  its  effects. 

Ex. — "  Jupiter  has  revolved  around  the  sun  for  ages," — the  fact  and 
the  act  continue.  "  The  culprit  has  been  imprisoned  for  ten  years," — the 
act  was  completed,  and  the  condition  remains  till  now. 

(3.)  To  denote  an  act  completed  in  a  future  period,  to  correspond 
with  a  future  event. 

Ex.— They  will  he  dissatisfied  before  they  have  remained  a  month. 


103.  Past  Tense. 

1.  The  past  tense  represents  what  took  place  in  time 
wholly  past. 

Ex. — I  saw;  I  was  seeing;  I  was  seen. 

In  this  tense,  the  time  of  speaking  is  the  present  j  that  of  the  act  or  the 
event,  a  period  wholly  past. 

2.  This  tense  is  used  to  denote  an  act  or  an  events — 

(1.)  As  in  itself  complete,  begun  and  ended  in  a  past  period 
absolutely,  or  with  reference  to  a  specified  time. 

Ex. — He  wrote  a  letter ;  He  wrote  a  letter  at  noon  yesterday. 

This  is  the  Latin  perfect,  or  the  Greek  aorist, 

(2.)  As  incomplete  at,  before,  or  after  a  past  time  mentioned. 

Ex. — He  was  riding  by,  at,  before,  or  after  noon. 

This  is  the  true  Latin  imperfect. 

(3.)  As  a  custom  or  habit  belonging  to  a  past  ^moc?. 
Ex. — He  braided  lace  at  intervals. 

104.  Past  Perfect  Tense. 

1.  The  past  perfect  represents  a  past  event  as  com- 
pleted in  time  wholly  past. 

Ex. — I  had  seen;  I  had  been  seeing;  I  had  been  seen. 


106  ENGLISH   GKAMMAR. 

Note.— Observe  the  difference  between  the  past  and  the  past  perfect.  "1 
wrote  a  letter  yesterday."  Here  the  act  is  spoken  of  as  complete  in  itself, 
that  is,  be(/un,  continued,  and  Jiniahed  (but  without  reference  to  either,  98,  4), 
in  the  period  yesterday.  "  I  had  written  a  letter  yesterday  at  twelve  o'clock." 
Here  the  act  is  spoken  of  as  completed  at  a  specified  time  in  the  period  ?/e«<er- 
day. 

2.  This  tense  is  used  only  when  the  present,  or  time  of  speak- 
ing, is  separated  from  a  period  wholly  past,  and  the  time  of  an  act 
is  at  or  before  a  specified  time  in  this  period. 

Ex. — "  He  had  written  his  letter  before  noon ;"  that  is,  He  had  (in  a 
past  period)  written  (finished  the  act)  before  noon  (specified  time  in  the 
period). 

105.  Future  Tense. 

1.  The  future  tense  represents  what  will  take  place  in 
future  time. 

Ex. — I  shall  see;  I  shall  be  seeing;  I  shall  be  seen. 

2.  In  this  tense,  as  in  the  others,  an  event  may  be  represented  as 
in  itself  co7nplete,  incomplete,  or  as  a  custom. 

Ex. — He  will  write;  He  will  write  before  noon.  They  will  be  marching 
before  the  dawn.     The  lion  shall  eat  straw  like  the  ox. 


106.  Future  Perfect  Tense. 

1.  The  future  perfect  tense  represents  an  event  as  com- 
pleted in  future  time. 

Ex. — I  shall  have  seen. 

Note. — Observe  that  in  all  the  perfect  tenses /our  different  times  are,  or 
may  be,  distinguished: — a. period,  past,  present,  or  future  (sometimes  named, 
oftener  not) ;  the  time  of  completing  something  in  any  one  of  the  periods ;  the 
time  of  speaking,  always  in  the  present  period;  a  specified  time,  always  in  the 
same  period  as  the  event. 

Ex. — "  I  have  (time  of  speaking)  caused  (time  of  completing)  the  bells  to 
be  rung  6e/bre  twelve  (specified  time)  to-day  {present  period)."  So,  "I  had 
caused,  &q.,  yesterday."     "  I  shall  have  caused,  <fcc.,  to-morrow." 

2.  This  tense  differs  from  the  simple  future  as  the  past  perfect 
differs  from  the  past.  It  represents  an  act  as  completed,  and  refers 
to  a  specified  time  in  some  future  period. 

Ex. — I  shall  have  written  a  letter  at  twelve  to-morrow. 


ETYMOLOGY — TENSES.  107 

107.  Tenses  in  all  the  Modes. 

1.  The  subjunctive  mode  has  six  tenses j — the  same  as 
the  indicative. 

2.  The  potential  mode  has  four  tenses, — the  present,  the 
present  perfect,  the  past,  and  the  past  perfect. 

3.  The  infinitive  has  two  tenses, — the  present  and  the 
perfect. 

4.  The  imperative  has  only  one  tense, — the  present. 

5.  Tense  in  the  subjunctive  mode  does  not  usually  mark  time 
with  the  same  exactness  as  in  the  indicative.    Thus, — 

(a.)  In  conditional  clauses,  if  the  thing  spoken  of  denotes  something 
actual  or  taken  as  actual,  the  tense-form  usually  denotes  the  true  time. 
Ex. — If  it  rained,  I  did  not  know  it. 

But  if  it  refers  to  something  merely  hypothetical  or  supposed,  the  past 
tense  represents  present  time,  and  the  past  pei^ect  represents  past  time. 

Ex. — If  I  were  going  now  (but  I  cannot),  I  should  ride.  If  I  had  had 
an  opportunity  yesterday  (but  I  had  none),  I  should  have  spoken  to  him. 

(6.)  The  7erb  to  be  has  a  distinct  form  for  the  present  and  the  past 
tense  used  hypothetically  and  denoting  present  time  (89,  13). 

Ex. — If  it  be  true.     If  I  ivere  not  Alexander,  I  would  be  Diogenes. 

(c.)  Were  in  this  use  cannot  stand  for  would  be,  or  would  have  been, 
although  in  other  uses  it  may. 

Ex. — It  were  an  impossibility  to  raise  the  requisite  sum, — ivould  be. 
Had,  in  like  manner,  is  used  for  would,  or  woidd  have. 
Ex. — I  had  rather  be  a  dog,  and  bay  the  moon,  than  such  a  Eoraan. 
It  had  been  better  for  him  if  he  had  pursued  the  opposite  course. 

6.  The  tenses  in  the  potential  mode  have  by  no  means  the  signifi- 
cation which  their  names  denote. 

(a.)  The  present  denotes  present  possibility,  permission,  ability,  or 
necessity  to  perform  an  act  sometimes  present  and  sometimes  future. 

Ex. — We  may  (now)  go  (to-morrow).  You  can  (noiv)  write  (now).  He 
must  (now)  leave  (now,  to-morrow,  next  week). 

(b.)  The  present  perfect  generally  denotes  a  -present  possibility,  neces- 
sity, &c.  that  a  past  act  was  performed. 

Ex, — I  mv.^t  have  written  (=  it  is  now  undeniable  that  I  v}rote)  (yester- 
day). 


108  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

(c.)  The  past  denotes, — 

(1.)  A  jpast  possibility,  &c.  to  perforin  an  act. 

Ex. — Can  you  write  ?    I  could  write  yesterday. 

(2.)  A  custom. 

Ex. — He  would  often  sit  the  entire  evening  without  uttering  a  word. 

WovM  and  might  are  now  seldom,  if  ever,  used  to  denote  past  time. 

(3.)  It  denotes  the  present  possibility,  &c.  when  followed  by  a  con- 
ditional clause. 

Ex. — I  might  or  could  go  (now)  if  I  would.  I  should  or  would  go 
(now)  if  I  could. 

(4.)  It  denotes  a,  future  possibility,  &c. 

Ex. — I  shall  not  go ;  but  if  I  should  go  (hereafter),  I  could  (hereafter) 
walk. 

(5.)  It  denotes  a  universal  duty  without  reference  to  time. 
Ex. — Children  should  obey  their  parents. 

(d.)  The  past  perfect  denotes  usually  a  past  possibility,  &c.,  but  by  no 
means  a  past  completed  act.  It  usually  implies  the  non-performance  of 
the  act.  Thus :  I  could  have  assisted  you  (yesterday)  if  you  had  desired 
it,  =  I  was  able  to  assist  you,  but  you  did  not  desire  it,  and  I  did  not  do  it. 

7.  The  infinitive  has  but  two  tenses, — the  present  and  the  per- 
fect. They  denote,  the  former  an  indefinite  or  a  progressive,  and  the 
latter  a  completed,  state  of  the  act. 

Ex. — To  write;  To  be  writing.     To  have  written;  To  have  been  writing. 

(a.)  The  infinitive,  like  the  participle,  may  be  connected  with  any 
mode  or  tense  of  the  principal  verb. 

(6.)  The  present  infinitive  denotes  a  time  either  present  or  future  with 
reference  to  that  of  the  principal  verb,  and  not  necessarily  present  with 
the  speaker. 

Ex. — I  intend  to  write.  I  intended  to  write.  I  had  intended  to  write. 
I  shall  begin  to  write. 

(c.)  The  perfect  denotes  a  past  act  completed  at  the  time  denoted  by 
the  principal  verb. 

Ex. — She  is  said  to  have  sung.  She  was  thought  to  have  written.  She 
will  be  known,  to  have  done  it. 

8.  The  imperative  has  only  the  present  tense,  which  denotes  the 
time  of  giving  a  command ;  the  time  of  its  performance  is  future. 


ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — FORMS.  109 

108.  Exercise. 

1.  Tell  the  tenses  of  the  following  verbs:— 

Did  you  hear  the  lecture  ?  He  listened  earnestly.  I  hope  to  find 
the  study  interesting.  It  will  not  rain.  Ralph  had  intended  to  go. 
I  have  heard  the  Irish  orator.  We  saw  the  constellation  of  the 
Southern  Cross.  Richard  will  have  learned  his  lesson  by  the  time 
we  wish  to  leave.  I  shall  have  finished  my  work  when  Sarah  conies. 
The  child  cried.  Was  the  view  pleasant  ?  Are  the  notes  of  the 
nightingale  sad?  Had  Anne  read  the  book?  The  hills  were 
covered  with  snow. 

2.  Tell  the  TEi!iSBS  of  the  following  verbs ;  also  those  ivhich  denote 
the  RECEPTION  of  an  act,  which  the  PROGRESS,  which  the  COMPLETION 
of  an  act,  and  which  an  act  complete  in  itself: — 

The  paper  is  published  in  Boston.  Is  he  planting  the  seed  ?  Has 
Frank  been  drawing  ?  I  shall  be  allowed  to  go.  When  will  Caro- 
line go  to  ride?  Have  they  been  to  the  concert?  My  brother  is 
teaching.  Happiness  will  be  her  portion.  Sorrow  is  the  common 
lot.  Have  you  been  taught  to  sing  ?  Had  his  wife  heard  the  good 
news  ?  I  wish  to  go.  I  will  not  be  denied.  He  shall  not  forget 
the  penalty.  Flowers  bloom.  Our  friends  will  have  gone  when 
you  come.  Joseph  tore  the  book.  What  shall  I  do  ?  William  has 
gained  the  prize.  Have  you  been  to  Europe?  Fanny  has  been 
learning  to  skate.  The  clock  has  struck.  Washington  was  never 
known  to  tell  a  lie.  He  had  been  promoted.  You  do  not  think  so. 
You  will  learn  to  know  her  better.  It  shall  not  be.  The  general 
is  deceived.  Charles  has  fallen  from  the  tree.  He  broke  his  arm. 
Louisa  was  carrying  the  package.  He  shall  be  immortal  who  liveth 
till  he  be  stoned  by  one  without  fault. 

109.  Forms  of  the  Verb. 

1.  The  forms  of  the  verb  are  its  various  changes  to 
express  the  time  and  state  (98,  1,  3)  of  an  act  in  the  several 
modes  and  tenses. 

2.  Transitive  verbs  may  have  four  forms, — the  common^ 
the  emphatic,  the  progressive,  and  the  passive. 

Ex. — I  love;  I  do  love;  I  am  loving;  I  am  loved. 

3.  The  emphatic  form  is  confined  to  the  present  and  past  indi- 
cative, and  the  present  imperative.  The  other  forms  are  extended 
through  all  the  modes  and  tenses. 

10 


110  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

4.  Intransitive  verbs  may  have  three  forms, — the  cwn- 
moTfiy  the  emphatic,  and  the  progressive, 

Ex. — I  sit;  I  do  sit;  I  am  sitting. 

5.  The  common  (indefinite)  form  represents  an  act  indefinitely, 
as  a  custom,  or  as  completed,  without  reference  to  its  progress. 

Ex. — I  love;  I  loved;  I  shall  love;  I  have  loved. 

6.  The  variations  of  this  form  in  the  second  and  the  third  person,  as  seen 
in  the  terminations  eat  and  eth,  belong  to  what  is  called  the  solemn  style.  They 
are  found  in  the  Scriptures,  in  forms  of  prayer,  in  poetry,  and  in  various 
sacred  books. 

7.  The  emphatic  form  Represents  an  act  with  emphasis. 
Ex. — I  do  write;  I  did  write. 

8.  This  form  is  used  in  interrogative  or  negative  sentences  without  emphasis. 
Ex. — Do  you  lorite  ?     Did  you  write  ?     I  do  write. 

9.  Tho, progressive  form  represents  ^(^progress  of  an  unfinished  act. 
Ex. — 1  am  writing. 

10.  In  the  perfect  tenses,  it  represents  the  completion  of  a  progressive  act. 
Ex. — I  have  been  writing ;  I  shall  have  heen  meriting. 

11.  The  passive  form  represents  the  reception  of  an  act. 
Ex. — I  am  loved;  I  was  loved;  I  shall  he  loved. 

12.  The  perfect  tenses  of  this  form  are  used  when  we  wish  to  represent  the 
completion  of  a,  passive  state. 

Ex. — I  have  heen  honored ;  I  had  heen  honored ;  I  shall  have  heen  honored. 

The  following  table  gives  the  form  for  each  division  of  time,  with 
a  description  of  the  state  of  the  act : — 

110.  Forms  for  each  Division  of  Time. 

I.  Present. 

Time.  Act.  Example. 

1.  Present.  Complete  in  itself.  He  writes. 

2.  "         Progressive  incomplete.  He  is  writing. 

3.  "         Completed.  He  has  written. 

4.  "        Progressive  completed.    He  has  heen  writing, 

5.  "        Emphatic.  He  does  write. 

6.  "        Passive  or  received.         The  letter  is  written. 

7.  "        Progressive  received.       The  house  is  building. 

8.  "         Passive  completed.  The  letter  has  heen  toritien. 


ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — AUXILIARIES.  ^111 

II.  Past. 
Time.  Act.  Example. 

1.  Past.     Complete  in  itself.  He  wrote. 

2.  "  Progressive  incomplete.  He  was  writing. 

3.  "  Completed.  He  had  written. 

4.  "  Progressive  completed.  He  had  been  writing, 
6.  "  Emphatic.  He  did  write. 

6.  "        Passive  or  received.         The  letter  was  written. 

7.  "        Progressive  received.       The  house  was  building. 

8.  "        Passive  completed.  The  letter  had  been  written. 

• 

III.  FUTUEE. 

1.  Future.   Complete  in  itself.  He  will  write. 

2.  "  Progressive  incomplete.  He  loill  be  writing. 

3.  "  Completed.  He  ivill  have  written. 

4.  "  Progressive  completed.  He  will  have  been  wr-iting. 

5.  "  Passive  or  received.  The  letter  will  be  written. 

6.  "  Progressive  received.  The  house  will  be  building. 

7.  "  Passive  completed.  The  letter  will  have  been  written. 

111.  Auxiliaries. 

1.  Auxiliary  verbs  are  those  which  are  used  in  conju- 
gating other  verbs.     They  are, — 

Pres.  Do,      be,       have,    shall,       will,        maxj,       can,       mu^t. 
Past.  Did,    was,    had,     should,    would,    might,    could,    

2.  The  auxiliaries  were  origxrxduWy  principal  verbs;  and  some  of  them  aro 
still  used  as  such. 

3.  The  auxiliary  verbs  are  used  to  form  the  modes  and  tenses  of 
other  verbs,  and  to  give  to  the  forms  in  which  they  are  used  the 
shades  of  meaning  peculiar  to  their  original  signification. 

4.  In  the  early  stages  of  the  language,  these  verbs  were  undoubtedly  used 
as  principal  verbs  followed  and  modified  by  the  infinitive  of  what  is  now 
called  the  principal  verb;  as,  may  go,  can  read,  must  sing;  like  the  Latin 
Possum  scrihere,  or  the  French  Je  puis  alter,  or  the  German  Ich  kann  schreiben. 
Finally,  the  subordinate  infinitive  came  to  be  regarded  as  the  principal  verb, 
and  that  on  which  it  depended  became  its  auxiliary. 

6.  The  auxiliaries  should  bo  regarded  merely  as  relation-icords,  or  words 
used  to  show  relations  of  time  and  mode,  as  the  preposition  is  used  to  show 
relations  of  fima,  place,  origin,  caxiae,  manner,  property,  material.  <tc.     In  fact, 


112 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


all  words  used  to  show  a  relation  of  whatever  nature — such  as  prepof^itiov^, 
relative  pronouns,  and  conjunctive  adverbs — are  a  species  of  auxiliary.  In  the 
progress  of  language,  these  auxiliaries  have  increased,  and  in  the  same  ratio 
the  inflection  of  the  principal  word  has  diminished.  An  exact  and  familiar 
acquaintance  with  their  various  uses  is  essential  to  a  correct  knowledge  of  the 
language.     (See  113,  below.) 

6.  The  auxiliaries,  as  such,  have  only  two  tenses, — the 
present  and  the  past^ — except  7nust,  which  has  no  varia- 
tion.    They  may  be  thus  represented ; — 


112.  Conjugation  of  the  Auxiliaries. 


Singular 

Plural. 

1st  Per. 

2d  Per. 

3d  Per. 

1st  Per. 

2d  Per. 

3d  Per. 

/. 

Thou. 

He. 

We. 

You. 

They. 

Am 

art 

is 

are 

are 

are 

Do 

dost 

does 

do 

do 

do 

Have 

hast 

has 

have 

have 

have 

Will 

wilt 

will 

will 

will 

will 

Shall 

Shalt 

shall 

shall 

shall 

shall 

May 

mayst 

may 

may 

may 

may 

Can 

canst 

can 

can 

can 

can 

^Must 

must 

must 

must 

must 

must 

Present. 


'  "Was  wast  was 

Did  didst  did 

Had  hadst  had 

Past.    \  Would  wouldst  would 

Should  shouldst  should 

Might  mightst  might 

Could  couldst  could 


were  were  w^ere 

did  did  did 

had  had  had 

would  would  would 

should  should  should 

might  might  might 

could  could  could 


113.  Signification  of  the  Auxiliaries. 

1.  The  auxiliaries,  deriving  much  of  their  force  from 
their  original  significations,  give  their  own  shades  of  mean- 
ing to  the  tense-form  into  which  they  enter. 

2.  Be,  from  the  Saxon  "  beon,"  to  be  fixed^  to  exist,  denotes 
existeriGe, 

As  an  auxiliary,  it  is  the  copula,  used  (80,  6)  to  join  an  attribute  to,  aJid 
ai>xert  its  existence  in,  the  subject  j  as,  "  The  heat  is  oppressive." 


ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — AUXILIARIES.  113 

3.  Do,  from  the  Saxon  "  don,"  to  do,  denotes  action. 

As  an  auxMiary,  it  is  used  chiefly  to  give  intensity/  of  meaning  to  the  action 
o\  the  principal  verb.  This  it  does  especially  in  aflBrmative  sentences,  and, 
to  some  degree,  in  negative.  But  in  interrogative  sentences  it  is  little  more 
than  a  sign  of  interrogation ;  as,  "  I  do  try ;"  "  I  did  go ;"  "  He  did  not 
speak;"  "Do  you  hear  it?" 

4.  Have,  from  the  Saxon  "  habban,"  to  have,  denotes  possession. 

As  an  auxiliary,  it  retains  its  original  meaning  in  the  idea  of  completion  j 
as  if  an  act  was  not  fully  possessed  by  its  subject  until  completed.  It  seems 
to  have  acquired  this  meaning  thus  : — In  "  I  have  treasures  concealed,"  have 
denotes  possession,  and  is  separated  from  "concealed;"  in  "I  have  concealed 
treasures,"  it  still  denotes  possession,  but  is  brought  into  connection  with 
"  concealed ;"  whereas,  in  "  I  have  concealed  the  treasures,"  it  is  brought  into 
intimate  relation  with  "  concealed,"  which  passes  from  a  passive  to  an  active 
signification  ;  and  here  we  have  the  idea  of  possession  or  completion  of  the  act. 

5.  Sbail,  from  the  Saxon  "  scealan,"  to  be  obliged,  and  will,  from 
the  Saxon  "  willan,"  to  determine,  have, — 

(a.)  A  complex  signification,  when  a  future  event  is  made  to  depend 
upon  the  determination,  resolution,  or  volition  of  a  personal  agent  (either 
the  actor  or  another). 

Ex. — He  shall  go  (I  so  resolve) ;  I  will  go  (I  myself  so  resolve). 

(6.)  A  simple  signifix^ation,  denoting  mere  futurity,  when  a  future  event 
is  wholly  or  chiefly  independent  of  volition  or  resolution. 

Ex. — It  will  rain  (whatever  you  or  I  may  resolve) ;  I  shall  be  over- 
taken (independent  of  my  will). 

In  this  case  the  speaker  merely  predicts  or  expresses  an  opinion.  The  past 
tenses  should  and  would  are  used  with  the  same  or  nearly  the  same  signifi- 
cations. 

The  following  rules  apply  to  shall  and  will. 

6.  Rule  I. —  When  the  person  who  resolves  or  predicts  is  not 
mentioned,  the  speaker  or  first  person  is  always  understood  in  affirma- 
tive, and  the  hearer  or  second  in  interrogative  sentences. 

Ex.— You  shall  go.  (/will  it.)  Shall  he  go?  (Do  yow  will  it?)  It 
will  rain,  (/predict  it.)     Will  it  rain?  (Do  you  predict  it?) 

7.  Rule  II. — Will  should  be  used  when  the  resolution  and  the 
action  are  attributed  to  the  same  person,  and  shall  when  they  are 
attributed  to  different  persons. 

Ex. — I  will  go.  (I  myself  resolve.)     Will  you  go?  (Do  you  yourself 
resolve?)     He  will  go.  (He  himself  resolves.)     He  shall  go.  (I  resolve.) 
They  have  determined  that  you  shall  go.     Shall  he  go  ?  (Do  you  resolve  ?) 
H  10* 


11-1  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

8.  Rule  III. — Shall  should  be  used  when  the  prediction  a7id  the 
action  are  both  attributed  to  the  same  person,  or  in  any  case,  provided 
the  action  be  attributed  to  the  yiebt  person;  and  will  should  be  used 
when  the  prediction  and  the  action  {except  in  the  case  of  the  first  person) 
are  attributed  to  riTTEEENT  persons. 

Ex.— You  wiU  be  promoted.  (I  predict  it.)  I  shall  teach,  or  be  a 
teacher.  (I,  he,  you,  or  they,  predict  it.)  Will  he  teach?  (Do  you  pre- 
dict it ?)     Will  it  rain  ?  (Do  you  think  so  ?)     It  will  rain.  (I  think  so.) 

Shall  is  used  in  animated  discourse,  contrary  to  the  last  part  of  Rule  III., 
when  the  speaker  offers  an  implied  pledge  that  his  prediction  shall  be  fulfilled  ; 
as,  "  When  the  precepts  of  the  gospel  shall  have  been  thoroughly  inwrought 
into  the  lives  of  men,  then  shall  war  be  known  only  in  history." 

9.  May,  from  the  Saxon  "magan,"  to  be  strong,  expressed  the 
primary  idea  of  power,  and  implied  a  personal  agency  from  without, 
employed  to  remove  all  hindrance.     Hence  the  idea  of  permission. 

10.  Can  is  from  the  Saxon  "  cunnan,"  to  know, — that  is,  an  intel- 
lectual power  within  one's  self.     Hence  the  idea  of  ability. 

11.  Must  is  from  the  Saxon  "  motan,"  to  be  able, — that  is,  to  be 
impelled  by  a  power  coming — not  from  any  personal  agency  with- 
out, as  in  case  of  may,  nor  within,  as  in  case  of  can — but  from  the 
nature,  constitution,  or  fitness  of  things.  Hence  the  idea  of  neces- 
sity, and,  in  a  moral  point  of  view,  obligation. 

Note. — It  will  be  seen  that  may,  can,  and  must  agree  in  the  idea  of  power,-^ 
hence  the  term  2}otential, — but  they  differ  in  the  source  of  it.  As  auxiliaries, 
they  retain  much  of  their  original  meaning.  3fay  expresses,  in  general,  per- 
mission  ;  as,  "  You  may  visit  the  country." 

12.  May  sometimes  denotes  possibility,  and  implies  doubt j  as,  "It  viay 
rainj"  "He  may  have  written;"  sometimes  a  petition;  as,  "J/ay  it  please 
you." 

13.  Might  and  could  also  express  in  past  time  the  same  general  meaning  as 
in  the  present;  as,  "  I  know  I  may  or  can  go."     "  I  knew  I  might  or  coidd  go."' 

14.  Might,  could,  should,  and  xooxdd  are  used  in  conditional  sentences, 
might  in  one  clause  answering  to  could  in  the  other,  when  power,  ability,  or 
inclination  is  implied;  as,  "He  might  sing,  if  he  coxdd  or  woidd."  So,  "He 
cnuld  sing,  if  he  looidd."  "  Ho  would  sing,  if  he  could,"  Sometimes  the  con- 
ditional clause  is  omitted.  "He  might  write."  "He  coxdd  write."  "He 
would  write.''  In  all  these  examples  a  present  possihility,  liberty,  &c.  is  re, 
ferred  to.  When  past  time  is  referred  to,  we  use  the  past  perfect  tense ;  as 
"  He  might  have  written,  if  he  would  (have  written"). 


ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — AUXILIARIES.  115 


114.  Exercise. 

1.  In  the  following  sentences,  do  shall  and  will  resolve,  or  pre- 
diet?— 

I  will  go  to  the  party.  You  shall  not  leave  the  room.  It  will  be 
a  sad  day  for  him.  He  shall  do  as  I  tell  him.  Eugene  will  come 
to  see  me.  I  shall  go  to  see  my  sister.  I  shall  see  him  to-morrow. 
In  the  day  that  thou  eatest  thereof,  thou  shalt  surely  die.  Thou 
wilt  show  me  the  path  of  life.  He  will  be  elected.  Perhaps  I  shall 
find  my  book.  I  will  fear  no  evil.  I  will  dwell  in  the  house  of 
my  God  forever.  Shall  I  go  to  ride?  Will  Florence  do  it?  In 
spite  of  all  your  objections,  I  will  do  it.  The  sun  will  shine.  The 
clock  will  strike.  Shall  you  go  to  the  lecture?  When  will  the 
time  come?    Will  the  earl  do  well ? 

2.  Correct  the  following  examples  by  giving  and  explaining  the  right 
use  of  SHALL  and  will  : — 

I  will  receive  a  letter  when  my  brother  comes.  If  they  make 
the  changes,  I  do  not  think  I  will  like  them.  Will  we  have  a  good 
time  if  we  go  ?  Perhaps  you  shall  find  the  purse.  I  will  be  un- 
happy if  you  do  not  come.  I  will  be  afraid  if  it  is  dark.  Surely 
goodness  and  mercy  shall  follow  me,  and  I  will  dwell  in  the  house 
of  the  Lord  forever.  I  resolve  that  he  will  return  with  me.  I  will 
be  obliged  to  you.  I  will  be  punished.  What  sorrow  will  I  have 
to  endure !  The  moon  shall  give  her  light.  Will  I  write  ?  He  is 
resolved  that  Mary  will  go.  If  we  examine  the  subject,  we  will 
perceive  the  error.  I  will  suffer  from  poverty ;  nobody  shall  help 
me.    When  shall  you  go  with  me  ?    Where  will  I  leave  you  ? 

3.  Study  the  following  Models  for  Analysis,  and  explain  the  auxili- 
aries : — 

We  are  marcbingr.  .  .  .  Are  is  an  auxiliary  verb,  denotes  present 
time,  and  asserts  a  thing  as  actual ;  march- 
ing is  a  present  participle,  denoting  a  pro- 
gressive act:  hence  are  marching  is  the 
present  tense,  indicative  mode,  progressiva 
form. 

I  do  write Do  is  an  auxiliaiy  verb,  denotes  the  pre- 
sent tense,  asserts  a  thing  as  actual,  and 
imparts  emphasis ;  wH^e  denotes  the  simple 
act :  hence  do  write  is  the  present  indica- 
tive, emphatic  form. 


116 


ENGLISH   GKAMMAR. 


Se  will  slngr* 


He  bas  conquered. 


I  had  been  wrltin§p. 


Iliey  wiU  bave  fong^bt. 


I  ma  J  read. 


If  be  is  detained. 


Will  is  an  auxiliary  verb,  denotes  future 
time  (simply  predicts),  and  asserts  a  thing- 
as  actual;  sing  denotes  the  simple  act: 
hence  will  sing  is  in  the  future  tense,  in- 
dicative mode. 

Mas  is  an  auxiliary  verb,  denotes  present 
time,  is  a  sign  of  completed  action,  and 
asserts  a  thing  as  actual ;  conquered  is  the 
past  participle  of  conquer,  denoting  a  com- 
pleted or  perfect  act :  hence  has  conquered 
is  the  present  perfect,  indicative. 
.  Had  is  an  auxiliary  verb,  denotes  past 
time,  is  a  sign  of  completion,  and  with 
been  asserts  a  thing  as  actual ;  been  is  the 
past  participle  of  the  auxiliary  to  be,  and 
is  used  to  denote  completion;  writing  is 
the  present  participle  of  write,  formed  by 
adding  ing  (28, 2) ,  and  denotes  a  progressive 
act:  hence  had  been  writing  is  the  past 
perfect  progressive,  indicative. 
Will  is  an  auxiliary  verb ;  it  denotes  future 
time  (simply  predicts),  and  asserts  a  thing 
as  actual ;  have  is  a  sign  of  completion ; 
hence  will  have  is  the  sign  of  future  com- 
pletion; fought  is  the  past  participle  of 
fight;  it  denotes  completion:  hence  will 
have  fought  is  the  future  perfect  tense, 
indicative. 

May  is  an  auxiliary  verb ;  it  denotes  pre- 
sent time,  asserts  a  thing  as  imagined  or 
thought  of  (not  as  actual),  and  gives  per- 
mission, or  expresses  doubt ;  read  denotes 
the  simple  act  now  in  contemplation: 
hence  may  read  is  the  present  potential, 
common  form. 

Is  is  an  auxiliary  verb,  denotes  present 
time,  and  of  itself  asserts  a  thing  as  actual, 
but,  under  the  influence  of  if,  asserts  a 
thing  as  doubtful  and  conditional:  de- 
tained is  a  passive  participle,  denoting  the 
reception  of  an  act :  hence  w  detained  is 
the  present  passive,  subjunctive. 


ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — TENBE-FORMS.  117 

4.  In  the  same  manner  analyze  the  following  examples: — 

The  tempest  has  passed.  The  sun  was  rising.  1  shall  be  satisfied. 
The  sailor  would  have  been  discharged,  if  he  had  not  given  a  satis- 
factory excuse.  The  boys  were  anxious  to  go.  Leslie  hoped  to 
have  finished  the  work  before  the  storm  approached.  Go  to  the 
prison.  Write  an  answer.  The  letter  may  have  been  delayed.  If 
you  should  write  a  correct  lesson,  you  would  be  commended. 

5.  Write  three  examples  of  the  emphatic  indicative  past;  three  of 
the  progressive  past  perfect ;  four  of  the  progressive  potential  past  per- 
fect; also  any  other  which  your  teacher  may  give. 

6.  Tell  the  mode,  the  tense,  and  the  fokm  of  each  of  the  following 
verbs: — 

Shepherd,  lead  on.  Sweet  is  the  breath  of  morn.  These  are  thy 
works.  He  will  be  coming.  Silence  filled  the  courts  of  heaven. 
Thus  far  shalt  thou  go.  He  leads  them  forth  through  golden  portals. 
Truth,  crushed  to  earth,  shall  rise  again.  Do  thou  in  secret  pray. 
If  thy  brother  die,  he  shall  live  again.  By  that  time  he  will  have 
been  reaping  his  wheat.  They  must  go  to  rest.  He  has  been 
studying  his  lesson.  The  sun  will  have  set  when  I  reach  home. 
He  sunk  to  repose  where  the  red  heaths  are  blended. 


115.  Uses  of  the  Auxiliaries.    Formation  of  Tenses. 

1.  The  auxiliaries  may  combine  to  form  the  tenses, — 

(a.)  With  participles. 

Ex. — I  am  writing;  He  was  loved;  We  have  written. 

[b.)  With  infinitives  (ill,  4). 

Ex. — I  may  write;  They  shall  read, 
(c.)  With  both  united. 
Ex. — I  may  have  learned. 

2.  In  the  indicative  mode  they  combine  as  follows : — 

Do  love,  emp.  form, — inf.  and  do,  dost,  does. 
Am  loving,  prog,  form, — pres.  part,  and 

(a.)  Abs.  tenses. -I  Present.      -|      «"'» ^«»  «^«'  «'*«• 

Am  loved,  pas.  form, — past  part,  and  am, 

is,  art,  are. 


118 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


(a.^  Abs.  tenses. 
(Coniinued.) 


Past. 


'  Did  love,  emp.  form, — inf.  and  did,  did»t. 
Was  loTingr,  prog,  form, — pres.  part,  and 

was,  wast,  were. 
Was  loved,  pas.  form, — past  part,  and  toa», 

toast,  were. 


Future. 


(6.)  Bel.  tenses. 


Sball  love,  com.  form, — inf.  and  shall,  shali, 

loill,  wilt. 
Shall  be  loving:,  prog,  form, — inf.  of  6c, 

and  pres.  part,  with  shall,  shalt,  will,  wilt. 
Sball  be  loved,  pas.  form, — inf.  of  be,  and 

pas.  part,  with  shall,  shalt,  will,  wilt. 

^Have  loved,  com.  form, — past  part,  and 

have,  hadst,  has. 
Have  been  loving*,  prog,  form, — past  part. 
pen.  -^       heen,  and  pres.  part,  with  have,  hast,  has. 
Have  been  loved,  pas.  form, — past   part. 

been,  and  pas.  part,  with  have,  hast,  has. 
Had  loved,   com.  form, — past  part,  and 

had,  hadst. 
Had  been  loving:,  prog,  form, — past  part. 

been,  and  pres.  part,  with  had,  hadst. 
Had  been  loved,  pas.  form, — past  part. 

been,  and  pas.  part,  with  had,  hadst. 


Sball  bave  loved,  com.  form, — inf.  of  have, 

and  past  part,  with  shall,  shalt,  will,  wilt. 
Sball  bave  been  loving,  prog,  form, — 

inf.  of  have,  past  part,  of  been,  and  pres. 

part,  with  shall,  shalt,  will,  wilt. 
Sball  bave  been  loved,  pas.  form, — inf. 

of  have,  and  past  part,  been,  and  pas.  part. 

with  shall,  shalt,  xcill,  wilt. 


Past  perf. 


Fut.  per£ 


8.  In  the  potential  mode  they  combine  as  follows : — 


(a.)  Abs. 


Present. 


Past. 


May  love,  com.  form, — inf.  and  may,  mayat, 

can,  canst,  must. 
May  be  loving-,  prog,  form, — inf.  of  be, 

and  pres.  part,  with  may,  mayst,  can,  canst, 

must. 
May  be  loved,  pas.  form, — inf.  of  be,  and 

pas.  part  with  may,  mayst,  can,  canst,  must. 

Mlgbt  love,  com.  form, — inf.  and  might, 
mightst,  could,  eouldst,  should,  shouldst, 
would,  wouldst. 


ETYMOLOGY— -VERBS — TENSE-FORMS. 


X19 


{a.)  Abs.  tenses. 
(Continued.) 


Past. 
Continued. 


Pres.  perf. 


(6.)  ReL  tenses. 


Past  perf. 


f  Mig:ttt  be  lovingr,  prog,  form, — inf.  of  he, 
and  pres.  part,  with  might,  mightst,  could, 
couldat,  would,  wouldst,  shotild,  shouldat, 
Mjg'lit  be  loved,  pas.  form, — inf.  of  be,  and 
pas.  part,  ■withmight,  mightst,  could,  coiddat, 
tcoidd,  looiddst,  should,  ehouldst. 

May  have  loved,  com.  form, — inf.  of  have, 

and  past  part,  with  may,  maysi,  can,  canst, 

must. 
May  bave  been  loving:,  prog,  form, — inf. 

of  have,  past  part,  been,  and  pres.  part. 

with  may,  mayst,  can,  canst,  must. 
May  have  been  loved,  pas.  form, — inf.  of 

have,  past  part,  been,  and  pas.  part,  with 

may,  mayst,  can,  canst,  must. 

Mig^ht  have   loved,  com.  form, — inf.  of 

have,  and  past  part,  with  might,  mightst, 

could,    coiddst,    looidd,    tcouldat,    shotdd, 

shouldst. 
Mig-ht  have  been  loving-,  prog,  form, — 

inf.  of  have,  past  part,  been,  and  pres.  part. 

with  might,  mightst,  could,  couldst,  should, 

shouldst,  xoould,  wouldst. 
Might  have  been  loved,  pas.  form,— inf. 

of  have,  past  part,   been,  and  pas.  part. 

with  might,  mightst,  could,  couldst,  should, 

shotddst,  would,  tcouldst. 


4.  With  the  exception  of  the  distinctive  form  in  the  present  and 
fche  past  (i07,  5,  6),  the  subjunctive  mode  has  the  same  tense-forms  as 
the  indicative  or  the  potential,  with  if,  unless,  though,  &c.,  prefixed. 

Ex. — If  Hove;  if  I  may  love. 

5.  The  imperative  mode  has  but  one  tense,  the  present,  which  is 
used  generally  without  the  subject  expressed,  and  in  all  the  four 
forms  of  the  verb. 

Ex. — Study;  be  thou  studying;  be  thou  loved;  do  write. 

6.  The  infinitive  mode  has  two  tenses, — the  present  and  the  per- 
fect. The  present  is  used  in  the  common,  the  progressive,  and  the 
passive  forms  of  the  verb,  and  is  formed  by  prefixing  "  to"  to  tlie 
simple  verb  for  the  common  form,  "  to  be"  to  the  present  participle 
for  the  progressive  form,  and  "^o  be"  to  the  passive  participle  for 
the  passive  form. 

Ex. — To  torite;  to  be  writing ;  to  be  uritten. 


1^0  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

The  perfect  is  used  in  the  common,  the  progressive,  and  the  passive 
form  of  the  verb,  and  is  formed  by  prefixing  to  have  to  the  past 
participle  of  the  verb  for  the  common  form,— to  have  been  to  the 
present  participle  for  the  progressive  form,— and  to  have  been  to  the 
passive  participle  for  the  passive  form. 

Ex. — To  have  written;  to  have  been  writing;  to  have  been  written. 

7.  The  present  participle  is  formed  by  adding  ing  to  the  simple  verb. 

Ex. — ^QdA-ing. 

The  past  participle  is  formed  for  regular  verbs  by  adding  ed  to 
the  simple  verb  (as,  2). 
Ex. — Honor-ec?;  honored. 

The  perfect  participle  is  formed  by  prefixing  having  to  the  past 
participle  of  the  verb  for  the  common  form, — having  been  to  the 
present  participle  for  the  progressive  form, — and  having  been  to  the 
passive  participle  for  the  passive  form. 

Ex. — Having  written,;  having  been  turiting;  having  been  vrritten. 


116.  Number  and  Person  of  the  Yerlb. 

1.  The  nnmber  and  person  of  the  verb  are  properties 
which  show  its  agreement  with  the  subject.  Like  the  sub- 
ject, the  verb  has  two  numbers  and  three  persons. 

2.  The^rs^  person  singular,  and  the  first,  the  second,  and  the  third 
person  plural,  of  the  present  tense  indicative,  in  all  verbs  {am,  are, 
was,  were,  excepted)  are  alike.  The  second  person  singular  is  like  the 
first,  except  in  the  solemn  or  ancient  style,  when  it  is  formed  by 
adding  st,  or  est,  to  the  first  person.  The  third  person  singular  is 
formed  from  the  first,  by  adding  s  or  es;  in  ancient  style  it  ends 
in  eth. 

Ex. — Thou  lovest  me  not.     He  prayefA.  best  who  loxeth  best. 

Verbs  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  consonant,  change  y  into  i,  and 
add  es,  to  form  the  third  person  singular ;  as,  try,  tries. 

3.  By  a  figure  of  enallage  (216,  7),  the  second  person  plural  of 
the  pronoun  and  the  verb  is  substituted,  in  conversational,  common, 
and  familiar  style,  for  the  second  person  singular. 

Ex. — Hubert,  you  are  sad,  =  Hubert,  thou  art  sad. 

Note. — The  tendency  among  some  grammarians  to  omit  from  their  para- 
digms, as  obsolete,  the  forms  of  the  second  person  singular,  is  to  be  regretted. 


ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — TENSE-FORMS. 


121 


To  say  nothing  of  these  forms  in  the  prose  of  the  past  few  centuries,  mudh  of 
which  is  read  at  the  present  time,  wc  have  them  in  all  kinds  of  poetry,  ancient 
and  modern,  in  the  Scriptures,  and  in  religious  books :  especially  in  prayer, 
thou,  as  the  79ronome?i  rcverentise,  is  in  daily  use.  There  can  be  no  objection 
to  give  the  plural  i/oic  for  the  singular  as  an  example  of  the  common  form ; 
but  the  other  should  not  be  omitted. 

4.  The  imperative  mode  has  usually  only  the  second  person. 

Ex. — Go  thou. 

In  some  languages  the  imperative  has  also  a  form  for  the  first  person 
plural  and  the  third  person  singular  and  plural.  A  few  examples  seem  to 
occur  in  English ;  as,  "  Rise  thy  sons ;"  "  Be  it  decreed."  Most  of  these  cases, 
however,  can  be  explained  by  supplying  an  ellipsis j  as,  "Let  thy  sons  rise;" 
"  Let  it  be  decreed." 

117.  Conjugation. 

1.  The  conjugation  of  a  verb  is  the  regular  arrange- 
ment of  its  several  modeSy  tenses j  voices,  numherSy  aiid  per- 
sons. 

2.  The  only  tenses  which  change  their  termination  are  the  present  and  the 
past ;  as  sit,  siiteat,  sit«,  sat,  soitest ;  tarry,  taxviest,  iarvies,  iixxxied,  tuvr iedst^ 
All  other  changes  are  made  by  means  of  auxiliaries. 

3.  In  adding  s  or  es,  observe  the  same  rules  as  in  the  formation  of 
the  plural  of  nouns;  as,  play,  plays/  fly,  flies;  go,  goes.  So,  also, 
observe  the  rules  (as)  for  the  changes  of  the  radical  verb ;  as,  drop, 
dropped  (Rule  I.) ;  reply,  replied  (Eule  III.). 

4.  The  principal  parts  of  a  verb  are  the  present  indica- 
tive, the  past  indicative,  and  the  past  participle. 


EXAMPLES. 

Present. 

Fast. 

Past  Participle. 

Explain, 

explained. 

explained. 

Rely, 

relied, 

relied. 

Write, 

wrote. 

written. 

Shine, 

shone, 

shone. 

Hurt, 

hurt. 

hurt. 

118,  Exercise. 

1.  Give  the  principal  parts  of  the  following  verbs: — 
Sail,  smile,  see,  shut,  close,  open,  burn,  glaze,  gild,  turn,  try, 
reform,  renew,  take,  leave,  make,  build,  hope,  fold,  alter,  correct. 


n 


122  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

2.  Study  the  following  Models: — 

Thou  hast  gone  to  thy  rest. 

Hast  gone . .  is  a  verb— it  expresses  being,  action,  or  state ;  irregular — 
it  does  not  form  its  past  tense  and  past  participle  by- 
adding  ed;— principal  parts— ^re^.  go,  past  went,  past 
part,  gone;  intransitive — it  does  not  receive  or  require 
an  object  to  complete  the  meaning;  common  form — it 
represents  an  act  as  completed  without  reference  to  its 
progress ;  indicative  mode— it  asserts  a  thing  as  actual ; 
present  perfect  tense— it  expresses  an  action  completed 
in  present  time ;  second  person,  singular  number,  to 
agree  with  its  subject  thou. 

Abbreviated  form : — 

Hast  gone . .  is  an  irreg.  intransitive  yerb, — go,  went,  gone,  indicative 
mode,  present  perfect  tense,  2d  person,  sing,  number,  to 
agree  with  its  subject  thou.  Or,  for  the  slate,  thus : — is 
a  V.  ir.  int.  ind. — pres.  perf. — 2d  per.  sing. 

3.  In  the  following  examples,  explain  the  verbs  in  the  same 
manner: — 

We  read  of  that  philosophy  which  can  smile  over  the  destruction 
of  property,  of  that  religion  which  enables  its  possessor  to  extend 
the  benign  look  of  forgiveness  and  complacency  to  his  murderers ; 
but  it  is  not  in  the  soul  of  man  to  bear  the  lacerations  of  slander, 

"  Lord,  and  what  shall  this  man  c^?" 
Ask'st  thou.  Christian,  for  thy  friend  ? 

If  his  love  for  Christ  be  true, 
Christ  hath  told  thee  of  his'iend: — 

This  is  he  whom  God  approves. 

This  is  he  whom  Jesus  loves. — Keble. 

And  the  raven,  never  flitting,  still  is  sitting,  still  is  sitting 

On  the  pallid  bust  of  Pallas,  just  above  my  chamber-door ; 
And  his  eyes  have  all  the  seeming  of  a  demon's  that  is  dreaming, 
And  the  lamplight  o'er  him  streaming  throws  his  shadow  on  the 
floor, 
And  my  soul  from  out  that  shadow  that  lies  floating  on  the  floor, 
Shall  be  lifted — nevermore ! — E.  A.  Poe. 


ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — CONGUGATION. 


123 


119.  Conjugation  of  the  Yerb  TO  BE. 


INDICATIVE    MOOD. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  am,  We  are, 

2.  Thou  art,  (Ye  o)-)  You  are, 

3.  He  is ;  They  are. 

PRESENT  PERFECT   TENSE. 

We  have  been. 


1.  I  have  been, 

2.  Thou  hast  been, 

3.  He  has  been ; 


1.  I  was, 

2.  Thou  wast, 

3.  He  was ; 


You  have  been. 
They  have  been. 

PAST   TENSE. 

We  were. 
You  were. 
They  were. 


PAST   PERFECT  TENSE. 


1.  I  had  been, 

2.  Thou  hadst  been, 

3.  He  had  been  ; 


We  had  been, 
You  had  been. 
They  had  been. 


FUTURE  TENSE. 

1.  I  shall  or  will  be.  We  shall  or  will  be, 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  be.  You  shall  o?-  will  be, 

3.  He  shall  or  will  be ;  They  shall  or  will  be. 

FUTURE   PERFECT  TENSE. 

1.  I  shall  or  will  have  been.  We  shall  or  will  have  been, 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  been.         You  shall  or  will  have  been, 

3.  He  shall  or  will  have  been ;  They  shall  or  will  have  been. 


1.  I  may  be, 

2.  Thou  mayst  be, 

3.  He  may  be ; 


POTENTIAL   MODE. 
PRESENT  TENSE. 

We  may  be, 
You  may  be, 
They  may  be. 


124  ENGLISH   GKAMMAK. 

PEESEXT   PERFECT   TENSE. 
Singular.  I'lural. 

1.  I  may  have  been,  We  may  have  been, 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  been.  You  may  have  been, 

3.  He  may  have  been ;  They  may  have  been. 

PAST  TEJS^SE. 

1.  I  might  be,  We  might  be, 

2.  Thou  mightst  be.  You  might  be, 

3.  He  might  be ;  They  might  be. 

PAST   PERFECT   TENSE. 

1.  I.  might  have  been,  We  might  have  been. 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  been.       You  might  have  been. 

3.  He  might  have  been ;  They  might  have  been. 


"v 


SUBJUNCTIVE   MODE. 


PRESENT  TENSE. 

1.  If  I  am,  If  we  are, 

2.  If  thou  art.  If  you  are, 

3.  If  he  is ;  If  they  are. 

PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE. 

1.  If  I  have  been.  If  we  have  been, 

2.  If  thou  hast  been.  If  you  have  been, 

3.  If  he  has  been ;  If  they  have  been. 

PAST  TENSE. 

1.  If  I  was.  If  we  were, 

2.  If  thou  wast,  If  you  were, 

3.  If  he  was ;  If  they  were. 

PAST  PERFECT  TENSE. 

1.  If  I  had  been.  If  we  had  been, 

2.  If  thou  hadst  been.  If  you  had  been, 

3.  If  he  had  been ;  If  they  had  been. 

FUTURE  TENSE. 

1.  If  I  shall  or  will  be.  If  we  shall  or  will  be, 

2.  If  thou  shalt  or  wilt  be.         If  you  shall  or  will  be, 

3.  If  he  shall  or  will  be ;  If  they  shall  or  will  be. 


ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — CONJUGATION. 


125 


FUTURE  PERFECT  TENSE. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  shall  or  will  have  been,         If  we  shall  or  will  have  been, 

2.  If  thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  been,     If  you  shall  or  will  have  been, 

3.  If  he  shall  or  will  have  been.       If  they  shall  or  will  have  been. 

P^SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE.     {Subjunctive  form) 

NoVe. — Besides  the  forms  already  given,  the  subjunctive  has  another  in  the 
present  and  the  past,  peculiar  to  itself. 


Singular. 

1.  If  I  be, 

2.  If  thou  be, 

3.  If  he  be ; 

1.  If  I  were, 

2.  If  thou  wert, 

3.  If  he  were ; 


PRESENT  TENSE. 


PAST  TENSE. 


Plural. 

If  we  be. 
If  you  be. 
If  they  be. 

If  we  were, 
If  you  were, 
If  they  were. 


IMPERATIVE   MODE. 
PRESENT   TENSE. 

Be,  or  Be  thou ;  Be  ye  or  you. 

INFINITIVE    MODE. 

Present  Tense.  To  be. 

Present  Perfect.  To  have  been. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present.    Being.  Past.    Been. 

Perfect.    Having  been. 

COMMON   STYLE. 

Congugate  the  verb  be  in  the  common  style,  thus : — 


Singular. 

1.  I  am, 

2.  You  are, 

3.  He  is: 


INDICATIVE   MODE. 
PRESENT  TENSE. 


11* 


Plural. 

We  are, 
You  are, 
They  are. 


126  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

PEESENT   PERFECT  TEXSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  have  been,  We  have  been, 

2.  You  have  been,  You  have  been, 

3.  He  has  been ;  They  have  been. 

In  the  same  manner,  let  the  learner  go  through  all  the  tenses  and  modes. 

Synopsis  is  a  short  view  of  the  verb,  showing  its  forms  through 
the  modes  and  tenses  in  a  single  number  and  person. 

Synopsis  of  the  verb  be,  in  the  first  person,  singular  number. 

INDICATIVE   MODE. 

Present,       I  am.  Past  Perf.    I  had  been. 

Pres.  Perf.  I  have  been.  Future.        I  shall  be. 

Past.  I  w^as.  Put.  Perf.    I  shall  have  been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE   MODE. 

Present.       If  I  am.  Past  Perf    If  I  had  been. 

Pres.  Perf.  If  I  have  been.  Future.        If  I  shall  be. 

Past.  If  I  was.  Fhit.  Perf    If  I  shall  have  been. 

POTENTIAL   MODE. 

Present.       I  may  be.  PomL  I  might  be. 

Pres.  Perf.  I  may  have  been.       Pa^t  Perf.    I  might  have  been. 
Here  Wiz first  'person  ends;  yet  it  is  well  for  the  pupil  to  give  the  impera- 
tive, the  infinitive,  and  the  participles. 

IMPERATIVE   MODE. 
Present.  Be  thou. 

INFINITIVE. 
Present.  To  be.  Perfect.  To  have  been. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present.  Being.  Perfect.  Having  been. 


120.  Exercise. 

1.  In  vjhat  mode  and  tense  are  the  following  verbs? — 
I  am.     He  has  been.     If  I  were.     You  can  be.     He  might  be. 
To  have  been.    They  were.     He  will  have  been.     You  might  be. 


ETYMOLOG  Y — VERBS — C02s  JUGATION.  1 27 

She  had  been.  You  will  be.  To  be.  I  must  have  been.  Thou  art. 
If  he  be.  If  you  are.  They  might  have  been.  We  were.  I  had 
been.    Thou  wast.    He  is. 

2.  Give  a  synopsis  of  to  be,  in  the  Ind.,  second  person  singular, — 
sec.  per.  plur.,— first  per.  plur.,— third  per.  sing., — third  per.  plur. 
Pot.,  third  per.  sing.,— sec.  per.  plur.,— third  per.  plur.  Sub.,  sec. 
per.  sing., — sec.  per.  plur., — third  per.  plur., — first  per.  plur. 


121.  Conjugation  of  the  Regular  YerbTO  LOYE. 

ACTIVE  VOICE. 

INDICATIVE   MODE. 

PRESENT   TEXSE. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  love,  We  love, 

2.  Thou  lovest,  You  love, 

3.  He  loves ;  They  love. 

PRESENT   PERFECT  TENSE. 

1.  I  have  loved,  We  have  loved, 

2.  Thou  hast  loved,  You  have  loved, 

3.  He  has  loved ;  They  have  loved. 

PAST  TENSE. 

1.  I  loved,  We  loved, 

2.  Thou  lovedst,  You  loved, 

3.  He  loved;-  They  loved. 

PAST   PERFECT   TENSE. 

1.  I  had  loved.  We  had  loved, 

2.  Thou  hadsf  loved,  You  had  loved, 

3.  He  had  loved ;  They  had  loved. 

FUTURE  TENBE. 

1.  I  shall  or  will  love.  We  shall  or  will  love, 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  love.  You  shall  or  will  love, 

3.  He  shall  or  will  love ;  They  shall  or  will  love. 

FUTURE  PERFECT  TENSE. 

1.  I  shall  or  will  have  loved,         We  shall  or  will  have  loved, 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  loved,    You  shall  or  will  have  loved, 

3.  He  shall  or  will  have  loved ;     They  shall  or  will  have  loved. 


128  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

POTENTIAL   MODE. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may  love,  We  may  love, 

2.  Thou  mayst  love,  You  may  love, 

3.  He  may  love ;  They  may  love. 

PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE. 

1.  I  may  have  loved,  We  may  have  loved, 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  loved.  You  may  have  loved, 

3.  He  may  have  loved ;  They  may  have  loved. 

PAST  TENSE. 

1.  I  might  love.  We  might  love, 

2.  Thou  mightst  love.  You  might  love, 

3.  He  might  love ;  They  might  love. 

PAST   PERFECT  TENSE. 

1.  I  might  have  loved.  We  might  have  loved, 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  loved.         You  might  have  loved, 

3.  He  might  have  loved ;  They  might  have  loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE.     {Regular  form.) 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

1.  If  I  love.  If  we  love, 

2.  If  thou  lovest.  If  you  love, 

3.  If  he  loves ;  If  they  love. 

PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE. 

1.  If  I  have  loved.  If  we  have  loved, 

2.  If  thou  hast  loved,        If  you  have  loved, 

3.  If  he  has  loved ;  If  they  have  loved. 

PAST  TENSE. 

1.  If  I  loved,  If  we  loved, 

2.  If  thou  lovedst,  If  you  loved, 

3.  If  he  loved ;  If  they  loved. 

PAST  PERFECT  TENSE. 

1.  If  I  had  loved,  If  we  had  loved, 

2.  If  thou  hadst  loved.       If  you  had  loved, 

3.  If  he  had  loved ;         If  they  had  loved. 


ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — CONJUGATION.  129 


FUTURE   TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  shall  07'  will  love,  If  we  shall  or  will  love, 

2.  If  thou  shalt  or  wilt  love,      If  you  shall  or  will  love, 

3.  If  he  shall  or  will  love ;         If  they  shall  or  will  love. 

FUTURE   PERFECT  TEXSE. 

1.  If  I  shall  or  will  have  loved,  If  we  shall  or  will  have  loved. 

2.  If  thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  loved,      If  you  shall  or  will  have  loved, 

3.  If  he  shall  or  will  have  loved ;     If  they  shall  or  will  have  loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE.     {Subj'unctlve  form.) 

PRESENT   TENSE. 

1.  If  I  love,  If  we  love, 

2.  If  thou  love,  If  you  love, 

.   3.  If  he  love  ;  If  they  love. 

PAST   TENSE. 

1.  If  I  loved.  If  we  loved, 

2.  If  thou  loved.  If  you  loved, 

3.  If  he  loved ;  .  If  they  loved. 

IMPERATIVE   MODE. 
Love,  or  Love  thou.  Love,  or  Love  you. 

INFINITIVE    MODE. 
Present.  To  love.  Perfect.  To  have  loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present.  Loving.  Past.  Loved. 

Perfect.  Having  loved. 

PASSIVE  VOICE. 
INDICATIVE   MODE. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  am  loved,  AV^e  are  loved, 

2.  Thou  art  loved.  You  are  loved, 
o.  He  is  loved  ;  They  are  loved. 

I 


130  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


PRESENT   PERFECT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  have  been  loved,  We  have  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  hast  been  loved,        You  have  been  loved, 

3.  He  has  been  loved ;         They  have  been  loved. 

PAST  TENSE. 

1.  I  was  loved,  We  were  loved, 

2.  Thou  wast  loved.  You  were  loved, 

3.  He  was  loved ;  They  were  loved. 

PAST   PERFECT  TENSE. 

1.  I  had  been  loved.  We  had  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  hadst  been  loved,  You  had  been  loved, 

3.  He  had  been  loved ;  They  had  been  loved. 

FUTURE  TENSE. 

1.  I  shall  or  will  be  loved,  We  shall  or  will  be  loved, 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  be  loved.  You  shall  or  will  be  loved, 

3.  He  shall  or  will  be  loved ;  They  shall  or  will  be  loved. 

FUTURE  PERFECT   TENSE. 

1.  I   shall   or   will   have  been        We  shall  or  will  have  been 

loved,  loved, 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  been        You  shall  or  will  have  been 

loved,  loved, 

3.  He  shall  or  will  have  been        They  shall  or  will  have  been 

loved ;  loved. 

POTENTIAL   MODE. 
PRESENT  TENSE. 

1.  I  may  be  loved,  We  may  be  loved, 

2.  Thou  mayst  be  loved,  You  may  be  loved, 

3.  He  may  be  loved ;  They  may  be  loved. 

PRESENT   PERFECT   TENSE. 

1.  I  may  have  been  loved.  We  may  have  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  been  loved,        You  may  have  been  loved, 

3.  He  may  have  been  loved ;  They  may  have  been  loved. 


ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — CONJUGATION.      1 31 


PAST  TENSE. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  might  be  loved,  We  might  be  loved, 

2.  Thou  mightst  be  loved,  You  might  be  loved, 

3.  He  might  be  loved ;  They  might  be  loved. 


PAST  PERFECT  TENSE. 

1.  I  might  have  been  loved.  We  might  have  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  been  loved.     You  might  have  been  loved, 

3.  He  might  have  been  loved ;  They  might  have  been  loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE.     [Regular  form,) 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

1.  If  I  am  loved,  If  we  are  loved, 

2.  If  thou  art  loved,  If  you  are  loved, 

3.  If  he  is  loved ;  If  they  are  loved. 

PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE. 

1.  If  I  have  been  loved,  If  we  have  been  loved, 

2.  If  thou  hast  been  loved.  If  you  have  been  loved, 

3.  If  he  has  been  loved ;  If  they  have  been  loved. 

PAST  TENSE. 

1.  If  I  was  loved.  If  we  were  loved, 

2.  If  thou  wast  loved,  If  you  were  loved, 

3.  If  he  was  loved ;  If  they  were  loved. 

PAST   PERFECT  TENSE. 

1.  If  I  had  been  loved.  If  we  had  been  loved, 

2.  If  thou  hadst  been  loved.  If  you  had  been  loved, 

3.  If  he  had  been  loved ;  If  they  had  been  loved. 


FUTURE  TENSE. 

1.  If  I  shall  or  will  be  loved,  If  we  shall  or  will  be  loved, 

2.  If  thou  shalt  or  wilt  be  loved,      If  you  shall  or  will  be  loved, 

3.  If  he  shall  or  will  be  loved ;         If  they  shall  or  will  be  loved. 

FUTURE  PERFECT  TENSE. 

1.  If  I  shall  or  will  have  been        If  we  shall  or  will  have  been 

loved,  loved, 

2.  If  thou  shalt  or  wilt  have        If  you  shall  or  will  have  been 

been  loved,  loved, 

3.  If  he  shall  or  will  have  been        If  they  shall  or  will  have  been 

loved ;  loved. 


132  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE.     (Subjunctive  form.) 

PRESENT  TENSE. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  be  loved,  If  we  be  loved, 

2.  If  thou  be  loved,  If  you  be  loved, 

3.  If  he  be  loved ;  If  they  be  loved. 

PAST  TENSE. 

1.  If  I  were  loved.  If  we  were  loved, 

2. .  If  thou  wert  loved.  If  you  were  loved, 

3.  If  he  were  loved ;  If  they  were  loved. 


IMPERATIVE   MODE. 
Be  loved,  07'  Be  thou  loved ;        Be  Jpved,  or  Be  you  loved. 

INFINITIVE   MODE. 

Present.  To  be  loved.  Perfect.  To  have  been  loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present.  Being  loved.  Past  (passive).  Loved. 

Perfect.  Having  been  loved. 

122.  Interrogative  and  Negative  Forms. 

1.  A  verb  is  conjugated  interrogatively  in  the  indicative  and  the 
potential  mode,  by  placing  the  subject  after  it,  or  after  the  first 
auxiliary. 

Ex.— Ind.,  Do  I  love  ?  Have  I  loved  ?  Did  I  love  ?  Had  I  loved  ? 
Shall  I  love?  Shall  I  have  loved?  Pot.,  Can  I  love?  Can  I  have 
loved?  &c. 

2.  A  verb  is  conjugated  negatively  by  placing  the  adverb  not 
after  it,  or  after  the  first  auxiliary ;  but  the  negative  adverb  should 
be  placed  before  the  infinitive  and  the  participles. 

Ex. — Ind.,  I  love  not,  or  I  do  not  love.  I  have  not  loved.  I  loved 
not,  or  I  did  not  love.  I  had  not  loved,  &c.  Inf.,  Not  to  love.  Not  to 
have  loved.    Part.,  Not  loving.    Not  loved.     Not  having  loved. 

3.  A   verb   is   conjugated   interrogatively  and  negatively,  in  the 


ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — CONJUGATION.      1 33 

indicative  and  the  potential  mode,  by  placing  the  subject,  and  the 
adverb  not,  after  the  verb,  or  after  the  first  auxiliary. 

Ex. — Love  I  not  ?  or  Do  I  not  love  ?  Have  I  not  loved  ?  Did  I  not 
love  ?    Had  I  not  loved  ?  &c. 

128.  Exercise. 

1.  Tell  the  mode,  the  tense,  the  voice,  the  number,  and  the  person  of 
the  following  veebs  : — 

She  has  loved.  I  might  love.  We  had  loved.  We  had  been 
loved.  He  may  have  loved.  If  I  be  loved.  I  love.  He  will  love. 
He  shall  have  loved.  I  have  loved.  They  shall  have  loved.  She 
is  loved.  We  may  be  loved.  You  might  have  been  loved.  If  I 
love.  If  they  love.  They  may  love.  We  will  love.  I  had  loved. 
Thou  hast  loved.  Thou  wilt  have  loved.  I  love.  Thou  art  loved. 
He  was  loved.    She  will  have  been  loved. 

2.  Write  or  repeat  a  full  conjugation  of  the  following  verbs: — 
Believe,  defy,  think. 

3.  Conjugate  the  first  of  the  above  verbs  interrogatively,  the  7iext 
negatively,  and  the  third  interrogatively  and  negatively. 

4.  Give  a  synopsis  of  either  of  the  above  verbs  in  either  form,  in  the 
first,  the  second,  or  the  third  person. 

124.  Synopsis— Progressiye  and  Emphatic  Forms — 
Terb  Read. 

Note. — The  progressive  form  is  the  verb  be  joined  to  the  present 
participle. 

Ex. — I  am  reading^*  I  was  reading:. 

The  passive  form  is  the  verb  be  joined  to  the  passive  participle. 
Ex. — I  am  pleased,  I  uras  pleased. 

^&^  The  pupil  should  be  careful  not  to  mistake  the  one  for  the  other.  In 
the  emphatic  form,  the  auxiliary  do  is  added  to  the  simple  verb  for  the 
present,  and  did  for  the  past.  It  is  found  only  in  the  indicative  and  the  im- 
perative mode. 

Verb  read,  progressive. — Ind.,  I  am  reading,  I  have  been  reading, 
I  was  reading,  I  had  been  reading,  I  shall  be  reading,  I  shall  have 
been  reading.  Pot.,  I  may  be  reading,  I  may  have  been  reading, 
I  might  be  reading,  T  might  have  been  reading.     Sttb.,  If  T  am  or 

VI 


134 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


be  reading,  if  I  have  been  reading,  if  I  was  or  were  reading,  if  I  had 
been  reading,  if  I  shall  be  reading,  if  I  shall  have  been  reading- 
Imp.,  Be  thou  reading.  Inf.,  To  be  reading,  to  have  been  reading. 
Part.,  Reading,  having  been  reading. 

Verb  read,  emphatic. — Ind.,  I  do  read,  I  did  read.     Imp.^  Do 
thou  read. 

125.  Exercise. 

1.  Write  or  repeat  a  full  conjugation  of  write,  lend,  play,  in  the 
progressive  form. 

2.  Give  a  synopsis  of  either  of  the  above  verbs  in  the  second  and  the 
third  person,  singular  and  plural. 

3.  Tell  the  difference  between  the  progressive  and  the  passive  form. 
(See  Note  above.) 


126.  Forms  for  each  Diyision  of  Time  combined! 

THE  VERB   TO  MAKE. 
INDICATIVE    MODE. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 


1st  Sing. 

2d  Sing. 

ZdSing. 

I 

Thou 

He,  She,  It, 

1.  Indef. 

make, 

makest. 

makes. 

2.  Prog,  incomp 

.  am  making, 

art  making, 

is  making. 

3.  Compd. 

have  made. 

hast  made, 

has  made. 

4.  Prog,  compd. 

have  been  making, 

hast  been  making. 

has  been  making. 

6.  Emphatic. 

do  make, 

dost  make, 

does  make. 

6.  Passive. 

am  made. 

art  made. 

is  made. 

7.  Pas.  prog. 

is  making. 

> 

8.  Pas.  compd. 

have  been  made, 

hast  been  made, 

has  been  made. 

1st  Hur. 

2d  Plur. 

Sd  Hur. 

We 

Ye  or  You 

They 

1.  Indef. 

make. 

make. 

make. 

2.  Prog,  incomp 

.  are  making, 

are  making, 

are  making. 

3.  Compd. 

have  made. 

have  made. 

have  made. 

4.  Prog,  compd. 

have  been  making, 

have  been  making. 

have  been  making. 

5.  Emphatic. 

do  make. 

do  make. 

do  make. 

6.  Passive. 

are  made. 

are  made, 

are  made. 

7.  Pas.  prog. 

are  making. 

8.  Pas.  compd. 

have  been  made. 

have  been  made, 

have  been  made. 

ETYMOLOGY— VERBS — COXJUGATIOX. 


135 


PAST  TEXSE. 

1st  Sing. 

2(7  Sing. 

Sd  Sing. 

I 

Tnou 

m,  SHE,  It, 

1. 

Indef. 

made, 

madest, 

made. 

2. 

Prog,  incomp 

.  was  making, 

wast  making, 

was  making. 

3. 

Compd. 

had  made, 

hadst  made, 

had  made. 

4. 

Prog,  compd. 

had  been  making, 

hadst  been  making. 

had  been  making. 

5. 

Emphatic. 

did  make, 

didst  make. 

did  make. 

6. 

Passive. 
Pas.  prog. 

■was  made, 

wast  made. 

was  made, 
was  making. 

J 

8. 

Pas.  compd. 

had  been  made. 

hadst  been  made. 

had  been  made. 

1st  Hur. 

2d  Hur. 

3d  Hur. 

We 

Ye  or  You 

They 

1. 

Indef. 

made, 

made, 

made. 

2. 
3. 

4. 
6. 

Prog,  incomp 
Compd. 
Prog,  compd. 
Emphatic. 

.  were  making, 
had  made, 
had  been  making, 
did  make, 

were  making, 
had  made, 
had  been  making, 
did  make, 

were  making, 
had  made, 
had  been  making, 
did  make. 

6. 

Passive. 

were  made. 

were  made. 

were  made. 

7. 
8. 

Pas.  prog. 
Pas.  compd. 

were  making, 
had  been  made. 

had  been  made, 

had  been  made, 

1st  Sing. 

I 

1.  Indef.  will  make, 

2.  Prog,  incomp.  will  be  making, 


3.  Compd. 

4.  Prog,  compd. 

5.  Emphatic. 

6.  Passive. 

7.  Pas.  prog. 

8.  Pas.  compd. 


will  have  made, 


FUTUEE  TENSE. 

2d  Sing. 

Tnou 
wilt  make, 
wilt  be  making, 
wilt  have  made, 


Zd  Sing. 
He,  She,  It, 
will  make, 
will  be  making, 
will  have  made. 


will  have  been  making,  wilt  have  been  making,  will  have  been  making. 


will  be  made. 


wilt  be  made. 


will  have  been  made,      wilt  have  been  made. 


will  be  made, 
will  be  making, 
will  have  been  made. 


1st  Plur. 
We 

1.  Indef.  will  make, 

2.  Prog,  incomp.  will  bo  making, 
8.  Compd. 


will  have  made. 


2d  Hur. 
Ye  or  You 
will  make, 
will  be  making, 
will  have  made. 


Zd  Hur. 
They 
will  make, 
will  be  making, 
will  have  made. 


Prog,  compd. 
Emphatic. 
Passive. 
Pas.  prog. 
Pas.  compd. 


will  have  been  making,  -will  have  been  making,  will  have  been  making. 


will  be  made, 


will  be 


will  have  been  made,       will  have  been  made. 


will  be  made, 
will  be  making, 
will  have  beon  marlp. 


136 


ENGLISH   GKAMMAR. 


127.  Iiregular  Terbs. 

1.  All  irregular  verb  is  one  which  does  not  form  its  past 
tense  and  past  participle  by  adding  ed  to  the  present  tense ; 
as,  see,  saw,  seen;  write,  ivrote,  written. 

The  irregular  verbs  were  much  more  numerous  in  the  early  history  of  tho 
language  than  at  present.  The  tendency  in  modern  English  is  constantly  to 
diminish  the  number  of  irregular  formations :  hence  the  numerous  obsolete 
forms.  Some  of  the  present  forms  are  derived  from  other  verbs.  Went  comes 
from  wend,  and  not  from  go.  Philologists  call  the  irregular  the  strung,  and 
the  regular  the  weak  inflection. 

2.  The  following  list  contains  the  principal  parts  of  the  irregular 
verbs.  Those  verbs  which  are  marked  R.  have  also  the  regular 
forms.  Those  which  are  italicized  are  either  obsolete  or  are  becoming 
so,  and  should  not  be  committed  to  memory.  When  the  R  is  dark- 
faced,  the  regular  form  is  preferred,  and  should  be  repeated  first  ; 
r.  in  italics  means  regular  but  seldom  used. 


Present. 

Past. 

Past  Participle. 

Abide, 

Abode, 

Abode. 

Arise, 

Arose, 

Arisen. 

Awake, 

Awoke,  r. 

Awaked. 

Be  or  am. 

Was, 

Been. 

Bear  [to  bring  forth), 

Bore,  bare, 

Born. 

Bear  [to  carry), 

Bore,  bare, 

Borne. 

Beat, 

Beat, 

Beaten,  beat. 

Begin, 

Began, 

Begun. 

Belay, 

Belaid,  E. 

Belaid,  ii. 

Bend, 

Bent,  r. 

Bent,  r. 

Bet, 

Bet,  R. 

Bet,  E. 

Bereave, 

Bereft, 

Bereft,  r. 

Beseech, 

Besought, 

Besought. 

Bid, 

Bid,  bade. 

Bidden,  bid. 

Bind,  Un- 

Bound, 

Bound. 

Bite, 

Bit, 

Bitten,  bit. 

Bleed, 

Bled, 

Bled. 

Blend, 

Blent,  R. 

Blent,  R. 

Bless, 

Blest,  R. 

Blest,  R. 

Blow, 

Blew, 

Blown. 

Break, 

Broke,  brake, 

Broken,  broke. 

Breed, 

Bred, 

Bred. 

ETYMOLOGY — VEHBH — IRliEGUJLAE.                  13, 

Present. 

Past. 

Past  Participle. 

Bring, 

Brought, 

Brought. 

Build,  Be- 

Built,  r. 

Built,  r. 

Burn, 

Burnt,  R. 

Burnt,  R. 

Burst, 

Burst, 

Burst. 

Buy, 

Bought, 

Bought. 

Cast, 

Cast, 

Cast. 

Catch, 

Caught,  r. 

Caught,  r. 

Chide, 

Chid, 

Chidden,  chid. 

Choose, 

Chose, 

Chosen. 

Cleave  (to  adhere) , 

Cleaved,  clave. 

Cleaved. 

Cleave  [fo  split), 

Clove,  cleft,  clave, 

Cleft,  cloven,  r. 

Cling, 

Clung, 

Clung. 

Clothe, 

Clad,  R. 

Clad,  R. 

Come,  Ac- 

Came, 

Come. 

cost, 

Cost, 

Cost. 

Creep, 

Crept, 

Crept. 

Crow, 

Crew,  R. 

Crowed. 

Cut, 

Cut, 

Cut. 

Dare  {to  venture), 

Durst,  R. 

Dared. 

Dare  (to  challenge),  R. 

,   Dared, 

Dared. 

Deal, 

Dealt,  r. 

Dealt,  r. 

I>ig, 

Dug,  r. 

Dug,  r. 

Do,  Mis-,  Un-,  Out', 

Did, 

Done. 

Draw, 

Drew, 

Drawn. 

Dream, 

Dreamt,  r. 

Dreamt,  R. 

Dress, 

Drest,  R. 

Drest,  R. 

Drink, 

Drank, 

Drunk,  drank. 

Drive, 

Drove, 

Driven. 

Dwell, 

Dwelt,  r. 

Dwelt,  r. 

Eat, 

Ate,  eat. 

Eaten,  or  eat. 

Fall,  Be-, 

Fell, 

Fallen. 

Feed, 

Fed, 

Fed. 

Feel, 

Felt, 

Felt. 

Fight, 

Fought, 

Fought. 

Find, 

Found, 

Found. 

Flee, 

Fled, 

Fled. 

Flina 

Flung, 

Flung. 

Fly, 

Flew, 

Flown. 

Forbear, 

Forbore, 

Forborne. 

Forget, 

Forgot, 

Forgotten,  forgot 

Forsake, 

Forsook, 

12* 

Forsaken. 

138 


ENGLISH   GKAMMAK. 


Present. 

Past. 

Freeze, 

Froze, 

Freight, 

Freighted, 

Get,  Be-y  For-, 

Got, 

Gild, 

Gilt,  K. 

Gird,  Be-,  En-, 

Girt,  R. 

Give,  For-,  Mis-, 

Gave, 

Go, 

Went, 

Grave,  Fn-, 

Graved, 

Grind, 

Ground, 

Grow, 

Grew, 

Haiig  (to  take  life,  R 

.)  Hung, 

Have, 

Had, 

Hear, 

Heard, 

Heave, 

Hove,  B. 

Hew, 

Hewed, 

Hide, 

Hid, 

Hit, 

Hit, 

Hold,  Be-,  With-, 

Held, 

Hurt, 

Hurt, 

Keep, 

Kept, 

Kneel, 

Knelt,  r. 

Knit, 

Knit,  r. 

Know, 

Knew, 

Lade,  to  load  {to  dip,  B 

,.), Laded, 

Lay, 

Laid, 

Lead,  3Iis-, 

Led, 

Leap, 

Leapt,  B. 

Learn, 

Learnt,  r. 

Leave, 

Left, 

Lend, 

Lent, 

Let, 

Let, 

Lie  {to  recline), 

Lay, 

Lie  {to  speak  falsely), 

R.  Lied, 

Light, 

Lit,  K. 

Lose, 

Lost, 

Make, 

Made, 

Mean, 

Meant, 

Meet, 

Met, 

Mow, 

Mowed, 

Pass, 

Past,  R. 

Pay,  Be-, 

Paid, 

Past  Participle. 

Frozen. 

Fraught,  r. 

Got,  gotten. 

Gilt,  R. 

Girt,  R. 

Given. 

Gone. 

Graven,  r. 

Ground. 

Grown. 

Hung. 

Had. 

Heard. 

Hoven,  R. 

Hewn,  R. 

Hidden,  hid. 

Hit. 

Held,  holden. 

Hurt. 

Kept. 

Knelt,  r. 

Knit,  r. 

Known. 

Laden,  r. 

Laid. 

Led. 

Leapt,  R. 

Learnt,  R. 

Left. 

Lent. 

Let. 

Lain. 

Lied, 

Lit,  R. 

Lost. 

Made. 

Meant. 

Met. 

Mown,  R. 

Past,  R. 

Paid. 


ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — IRREGULAR. 


139 


Present. 

Fust. 

Past  Participle. 

Pen  {to  enclose), 

Pent,  R, 

Pent,  B. 

Prove, 

Proved, 

Proven,  R. 

Put, 

Put, 

Put. 

Quit, 

Quit,  r. 

Quit,  r. 

Eap, 

Rapt,  K. 

Rapt,  R. 

Eead, 

Read, 

Read. 

Rend, 

Rent, 

Rent. 

Rid, 

Rid, 

Rid. 

Ride, 

Rode,  7-id, 

Ridden,  rid. 

Ring, 

Rang,  rung, 

Rung. 

Rise,  A', 

Rose, 

Risen. 

Rive, 

Rived, 

Riven,  R. 

Run, 

Ran,  run, 

Run. 

Saw, 

Sawed, 

Sawn,  R. 

Say, 

Said, 

Said. 

See, 

Saw, 

Seen. 

Seek, 

Sought, 

Sought. 

Seethe, 

Sod,  R. 

Sodden,  R. 

Sell, 

Sold, 

Sold. 

Send, 

Sent, 

Sent. 

Set,  Be-, 

Set, 

Set. 

Shake, 

Shook, 

Shaken. 

Shape,  Mis-y 

Shaped, 

Shapen,  R. 

Shave, 

Shaved, 

Shaven,  r. 

Shear, 

Sheared,  {shore,  obs.) 

Shorn,  R. 

Shed, 

Shed, 

Shed. 

Shine, 

Shone,  R. 

Shone,  R. 

Shoe, 

Shod, 

Shod. 

Shoot, 

Shot, 

Shot. 

Show, 

Showed, 

Shown,  R. 

Shred, 

Shred, 

Shred,  [shrunken. 

Shrink, 

Shrunk,  shrank, 

Shrunk  or 

Shut, 

Shut, 

Shut. 

Sing, 

Sang,  sung, 

Sung. 

Sink, 

Sunk,  sank, 

Sunk. 

Sit, 

Sat, 

Sat. 

Slay, 

Slew, 

Slain. 

Sleep, 

Slept, 

Slept. 

Slide, 

Slid, 

Slidden,  slid. 

Sling, 

Slung,  shfif/, 

Slung. 

Slink, 

Slunk, 

Slunk. 

140 


EliTGLISH   GRAMMAJR. 


Present. 

Fust. 

Past  Participle- 

Slit, 

Slit,  r. 

Slit,  r. 

Smell, 

Smelt,  B, 

Smelt,  B, 

Smite, 

Smote, 

Smitten,  smit. 

Sow  [to  scatter), 

Sowed, 

Sown,  R. 

Speak,  Be-, 

Spoke,  spake, 

Spoken. 

Speed, 

Sped,  r. 

Sped,  r. 

Spell, 

Spelt,  R. 

Spelt,  R. 

Spend,  Mis-y 

Spent, 

Spent. 

Spill, 

Spilt,  E. 

Spilt,  R. 

Spin, 

Spun,  spa7i, 

Spun. 

Spit,  Be-, 

Spit,  spat. 

Spit. 

Split, 

Split,  r. 

Split,  r. 

Spoil, 

Spoilt,  B. 

Spoilt,  B. 

Spread,  Be-, 

Spread, 

Spread. 

Spring, 

Sprang,  sprung, 

Sprung. 

Stand,  With-,  &c., 

Stood, 

Stood. 

Stave, 

Stove,  B. 

Stove,  B. 

Stay, 

Staid,  R. 

Staid,  R. 

Steal, 

Stole, 

Stolen. 

Stick, 

Stuck, 

Stuck, 

Sting, 

Stung, 

Stung. 

Stride, 

Strode,  strid, 

Stridden,  strid. 

Strike, 

Struck, 

Struck,  stricken 

String, 

Strung, 

Strung. 

Strive, 

Strove, 

Striven. 

Strow,  or  Strew,  Be-, 

,   Strowed  or  strewed, 

Strown,  strewn. 

Swear, 

Swore,  sware. 

Sworn. 

Sweat, 

Sweat,  B. 

Sweat,  R. 

Sweep, 

Swept, 

Swept. 

Swell, 

Swelled, 

Swollen,  R. 

Swim, 

Swam,  swum, 

Swum. 

Swing, 

Swoing, 

Swung. 

Take,  Be-,  &c.. 

Took, 

Taken. 

Teach,  Mis-,  Be-, 

Taught, 

Taught. 

Tear, 

Tore,  tare. 

Torn. 

Tell, 

Told, 

Told. 

Think,  Be-, 

Thought, 

Thought. 

Thrive, 

Throve,  B. 

Thriven,  b. 

Throw, 

Threw, 

Thrown. 

Thrust, 

Thrust, 

Thrust. 

Tread, 

Trod, 

Trodden,  trod. 

ETYMOLOGY — VERBS— 

-IKREGULAK. 

P}-esent. 

Past. 

Past  Participle. 

Wake, 

Woke,  R. 

Woke,  R. 

Wax, 

Waxed, 

Waxen,  R. 

Wear, 

Wore, 

Worn. 

Weave, 

Wove, 

Woven. 

Wed, 

Wed,  R. 

Wed,  R. 

Weep, 

Wept, 

Wept. 

Wet, 

Wet,  R. 

Wet,  R. 

Whet, 

Whet,  R. 

Whet,  R. 

Win, 

Won, 

Won. 

Wind, 

Wound,  R. 

Wound. 

Work, 

Wrought,  R. 

Wrought,  R. 

Wring, 

Wrung, 

Wrung. 

Write, 

Wrote, 

Written. 

141 


Note. — Many  of  the  words  in  the  list  are  irregular  to  the  eye,  not  to  the 
ear.  The  preference  is  one  of  orthography.  Thus,  rapt  and  rapped  are  pro- 
nounced alike;  so,  also,  drest,  dressed,  blest,  blessed,  and  others.  Sometimes 
the  difference  in  sound  is  that  of  t  and  its  correlative  d, — dicelt,  dioelled,  spelt, 
spelled.  Besides  the  words  in  the  list,  there  are  a  few  forms  which  are  sel- 
dom found  except  in  the  poets  or  in  the  older  usages  of  the  language.  The 
following  ve7'i/  rarely  have  a  regular  past  and  past  participle : — Grind,  lay, 
pay,  shake,  slide,  sioeep,  string,  strive,  loind,  wring. 

Betide  has  (obs.)  betid;  bide  has  (obs.)  bided ;  creep  has  (obs.)  crope  ;  curse 
has  sometimes  curst;  dive  has  (obs.)  dove,  diven;  heat  has  (colloquial)  heat; 
plead  has  (improperly)  plead;  reave  (itself  little  used)  has  re/t,  B. ;  shear  has 
(obs.)  shore;  show  has  (obs.)  sheio,  shewn;  strow,  strew,  or  (obs.)  straw,  has 
stroiced,  streioed,  (obs.)  strawed,  strawn,  strewn;  but  it  may  now  be  regarded 
as  a  regular  verb, — streio,  streioed,  strewed. 


128.  Exercise. 

1.  Give  the  past  and  the  past  participle  of  teach,  sing,  write,  read, 
hurt,  sit,  arise,  take,  beat,  tell,  &c.  &c. 

2.  Give  the  present  and  the  past  for  the  following  past  participles  :-^ 
Thrown,  sworn,  s^vum,  built,  spoken,  stolen,  &c.  &c. 

3.  Correct  the  following  examples,  and  give  the  number  and  person 
of  each: — 

The  blossoms  have  fell  from  the  trees.  Mary  come  to  school  in 
haste,  parah's  exercise  is  wrote  badly  .'A  The  thief  stoled  the  money 
and  telted  a  falsehood  about  it.  The  lake  is  froze  hard.  Charles 
has  took  the  wrong  course.  The  bell  ringed  loud.  The  soldiers  fit 
bravely.    She  did  not  git  the   premium.     The  exercise  is  wrote 


142  ENGLISH  gra:>[mar. 

badly.  James  has  not  spoke  the  truth.  A  sad  misfortune  has  be- 
fell him.  The  carriage  was  drawed  by  four  horses.  Being  weary, 
I  laid  down,  and  ris  much  refreshed.  The  ball  was  throwed  too 
high.  I  see  the  soldiers  when  they  come.  The  wind  has^blowed 
the  fruit  from  the  trees,  and  broke  the  branches,  /tie  sit^down\ 
upon  the  bank.  The  cattle  were  drove  to  pasture./  After  he  had  j 
strove  many  times,  he  winned  the  prize.  The  bee/stinged  NcUi^ 
badly.  Edwin  has  took  my  knife.  The  sky  has  wore  a**cl(Mc[^' 
aspect  for  several  days.  vShe  singed  the  song  well.  The  cars  have 
ran  off  the  track.  Grandmother  has  weaved  the  cloth  beautifully. 
Who  teached  him  grammar?  These  apples  have  grower!  veiy  fast. 
He  dinged  to  the  mast.  He  give  me  some  money.  Anna  stringcid 
the  beads  quickly.  The  vessel  has  hove  in  sight.  She  s])ringed  a 
leak.  The  stone  smit  him  in  the  face.  The  river  has  overflown  its 
banks.    I  seen  Harrv  when  he  done  it. 


129.  Defectiye  Terbs. 

1.  Defective  verbs  are  those  in  which  some  of  the  prin- 
cipal parts  are  wanting. 

2.  They  are  may,  can,  shall,  and  will,  which  have  the 
past  tense,  but  no  participles ;  must  and  ought,  which  have 
neither  a  past  tense  nor  participles;  quoth,  which  has 
neither  a  present  tense  nor  participles. 

3.  When  7nust  refers  to  past  time,  it  is  used  in  the  present-per- 
fect tense. 

Ex. — He  must  have  left. 

When  ought  refers  to  past  time,  it  is  followed  by  the  perfect 
infinitive. 

Ex. — He  ought  to  have  written. 

4.  Quoth  is  now  seldom  used,  and  only  in  the  past  tense,  first  and 
third  person  singular. 

Ex. — Air,  quoth  he,  thy  cheeks  may  blow. 

Beware  formerly  was  written  in  two  words : — "  Of  whom  bs  thou 
loare"    It  is  used  chiefly  in  the  imperative  mood. 
Ex. — Beware  of  dogs. 


ETYMOLOGY — VEKBS — IMPERSONAJL.  143 

130.  Redundant  and  Impersonal  Yerbs. 

1.  A  redundant  verb  has  more  than  one  form  for  its 
past  tense  or  past  participle. 

Ex. — Thrive,  thrived  or  throve,  thrived  or  thriven. 

2.  An  impersonal  verb  is  one  by  which  an  action  or 
a  state  is  asserted  independently  of  any  particular  subject. 

Ex. — It  rains.     It  snows. 

3.  Methinks,  methought,  nieseems,  meseemed,  may  be  regarded  aa 
impersonal,  or  rather  unipersonal,  verbs. 

Ex. — My  father  !  methinks  I  see  my  father. 

They  are  equivalent  to  I  think,  I  thought,  It  seems,  It  seemed  to  mc. 

131.  Exercise. 

1.  Study  the  following  models  for  parsing  the  verb: — 
(Full  form.) 
(1.)  Give  the  part  of  speech,  and  tell  why. 
(2.)  Tell  whether  it  is  regular  or  irregular,  and  why. 
(3.)  Give  the  principal  parts. 

(4.)  Tell  whether  it  is  transitive  or  intransitive,  and  why. 
(5.)  Tell  the  voice  and  form,  and  why. 
(6.)  Tell  the  mode,  and  why. 
(7.)  Tell  the  tense,  and  why. 
(8.)  Inflect  the  tense. 

(9.)  Tell  the  number  and  person,  and  why. 
(10.)  Give  the  rule. 

(Abbreviated  form.) 
(1.)  It  is  a  regular  or  irregular,  transitive  or  intransitive,  verb, 
(if  transitive)  active  or  passive  form. 
(2.)  Principal  parts. 
(3.)  Mode. 
(4.)  Tense. 

(5.)  Number  and  person. 
(6.)  Construction  and  rule. 


144  ENGLISH   GEAMMAE. 

EXAMPLES. 

2.  Sarah  has  written  a  letter. 

Has  written  ...  is  a  verb  (why?) ;  principal  parts  (pres.  write,  past 
wrote,  past  part,  written) ;  transitive  (why?) ;  active 
voice  (why?);  common  form  (why?);  indicative 
mode  (why?) ;  present-perfect  tense; — it  is  formed 
by  prefixing  have,  which  both  denotes  present 
time  and  is  the  sign  of  completion,  to  the  past 
participle  written,  which  denotes  completion 
(I  have  written,  thou  hast  written,  he  has  written; 
we  have  written,  you  have  written,  they  have  written) ; 
third  person,  singular  number,  and  agrees  with  its 
subject  Sarah,  according  to  Eule  IV. :  "  The  verb 
must  agree  with  its  subject  in  number  and  per- 
son." 

3.  She  can  play. 

Can  play is  a  verb  (why?) ;  regular  (why?) ;  principal  parts ; 

intransitive  (why?);  common  form  (why?);  poten- 
tial mode  (why?) ;  present  tense  (why?) ;  (analyze 
and  inflect  it);  third  person,  singular  number 
(why?).    Eule  IV. 

4.  America  was  discovered  by  Columbus. 

Was  discovered .  is  a  regular  transitive  verb,  passive  voice, — or  simply 
a  regular  passive  verb, — the  subject  is  represented 
as  acted  upon;  {discover,  discovered,  discovered), 
indicative  mode  (why?) ;  past  tense  (why?) ;  (analyze 
(ll4, 3)  and  inflect  it) ;  third  person,  singular  num- 
ber, and  agrees  with  its  subject  America,  accord- 
ing to  Eule  IV. 

5.  I  love  to  see  the  sun  shine. 

To  see is  an  irregular  transitive  verb,  active  voice,  &c.,  in- 
finitive mode  (why?) ;  present  tense,  and  limits  love, 
according  to  Eule  XVI. :  "  The  infinitive  has  the 
construction  of  the  noun,"  &c. 

Shine is    an    irregular   intransitive   verb    {shine,   shone, 

shone),  infinitive  mode,  present  tense,  and  limits 
see. 

6.  If  they  were  reading  the  book. 

Were  reading  .  .  is  an  irregular  transitive  verb,  active  voice,  pro- 
gressive form  (why?) ;  subjunctive  mode  (why?),  &c. 


ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — EXERCISE.  145 

7.  Has  he  come  ? 

Has  come is  an  irregular  intransitive  verb,  common  form  (con- 
jugated interrogatively),  &c. 

8.  Add  an  object,  and  change  the  following  transitive  verbs  from  the 
active  to  the  passive  voice : — 

Mary  loved.  They  read.  Henry  lost.  The  children  played. 
Augustus  threw.  Anna  found.  He  rowed.  Hear.  The  father 
punished.  Jane  broke.  Give.  Will  you  lend?  (Thus:  Mary 
loved  the  truth,  =  The  truth  was  loved  by  Mary.) 

9.  Change  the  following  transitive  verbs  from  the  passive  to  the  active 
form,  and  supply  a  subject  when  it  is  omitted: — 

America  was  discovered  in  1492.  Eeligious  liberty  was  established 
in  Khode  Island.  Magna  Charta  was  granted  to  the  English. 
The  Mexicans  were  defeated  at  Buena  Vista.  The  king  was  con- 
cealed in  the  tree.  The  retreat  of  the  Greeks  was  conducted  very 
skilfully.  A  great  battle  was  fought  at  Marathon.  The  Gunpowder- 
Plot  was  discovered.  King  Charles  was  restored  to  the  throne  in 
1660.  Paradise  Lost  was  written  by  Milton.  The  Messiah  was 
written  by  a  distinguished  poet.  (Thus :  Christopher  Columbus  dis- 
covered America  in  1492.) 

10.  Parse  the  veebs  in  the  following  examples;  also  the  NOUNS, 
the  ADJECTIVES,  the  peonouns,  a7id  the  paeticiples  : — 

In  August,  even,  not  a  breeze  can  stir  but  it  thrills  us  with  the 
breath  of  autumn.  A  pensive  glory  is  seen  in  the  far,  golden 
gleams  among  the  shadows  of  the  trees. — Hawthorne. 

Reproach  did  not  spare  Braddock  even  in  his  grave.  Still,  his 
dauntless  conduct  on  the  field  of  battle  shows  him  to  have  been  a 
man  of  fearless  spirit ;  and  he  was  universally  allowed  to  be  an  ac- 
complished disciplinarian.  Whatever  may  have  been  his  faults  and 
errors,  he  expiated  them  by  the  hardest  lot  that  can  befall  a  brave 
soldier,  ambitious  of  renown, — an  unhonored  grave  in  a  strange 
land,  a  memory  clouded  by  misfortune,  and  a  name  forever  coupled 
with  defeat. — Irving, 

Now,  by  the  skies  above  us,  and  by  our  fathers'  graves, 
Be  men  to-day,  Quirites, — or  be  forever  slaves ! — Macaiday. 

Whatever  changes  be  rung  upon  bells,  they  ought  to  be  chimes. — 
Willmott. 

J  The  game  is  done  lU've  wonJPve  won ! 
(Quoth  she,  and  whhU^s'Sivice^  Coleridge. 


146  ENGLISH   GEAMMAE. 

Yet  once,  metliought, 


It  lifted  up  its  head,  and  did  address 

Itself  to  motion,  like  as  ib  would  speak. — Hamlet 

ADVERBS. 
133.  Definition. 

1.  An  adverb  is  a  word  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of 

a  verb,  an  adjective^  a  participle^  or  another  adverb. 

Ex.— He  leaves  quickly.  Washington  was  a  truly  great  man.  The 
judge,  rising  slowly,  addressed  the  prisoner.  I  beg  your  pardon,  I  spoke 
very  hastily. 

Remark. — When  an  idea,  however  expressed,  is  put  in  such  relation  to  a 
verb,  an  adjective,  a  participle,  or  an  adverb,  as  to  represent  some  circumstance 
of  place,  timef  cause,  manner,  or  degree,  it  is  adverbial,  because  it  is  placed  in 
an  adverbial  relation  in  the  sentence.  The  same  idea  placed  in  relation  to  a 
noun  or  a  pronoun  is  of  the  nature  of  an  adjective  ,•  as,  "  He  who  acts  uprightly 
is  an  upright  man;"  "The  star  rose  in  the  east;"  "The  star  in  the  east/' 
"  The  eagle  which  perched  upon  the  cliff;"  "  They  S^aw  the  eagle  as  it  perched 
upon  the  cliff." 

2.  An  adverbial  idea  may  be  expressed, — 

(1.)  By  a  sing^ie  word,  an  adverb,  having  its  relation  determined 
by  its  termination,  its  position,  or  its  meaning. 

Ex.— 'Tis  greatly  wise  to  talk  with  our  past  hours. 

(2.)  By  a  noun  or  a  prononn,  having  its  relation  expressed  by 
a  preposition. 

Ex.— The  affair  was  managed  with  prudence,  =  prudently.  They 
gathered  around  it. 

In  this  case,  the  phrase  consisting  of  the  preposition  and  the  noun  is  said 
to  be  adverbial. 

(3.)  By  a  propoisition,  having  its  relation  expressed  by  a  con- 
junctive adverb. 

Ex. — Speak  so  that  you  may  be  understood  =  distinctly. 
Here  the  clause  or  proposition  is  adverbial. 

3.  Adverbs  are  usually  abridged  expressions  taking  the 
place  of  phrases  consisting  of  a  preposition  and  a  noun. 

Ex.— He  lived  there,  ~  in  that  place.     He  conducted  wisely,  —  in  a  wi^e 


ETYMOLOGY — ADVERBS — CLASSES.  147 

4.  Sometimes  an  adverb  seems  to  qualify  a  noun,  and  thereby  to 
partake  of  the  nature  of  an  adjective. 

Ex. — I  found  the  boy  only. 

5.  Sometimes  an  adverb  modifies  a  phrase,  or  an  entire  propo- 
sition. 

Ex. — Far  from  home.  The  accident  happened  directly  after  we 
crossed  the  bridge. 

133.  Exercise. 

1.  Point  out  the  adverbs  i?i  the  following  setitences: — 

She  sang  sweetly.  The  wind  moaned  mournfully  over  her  grave. 
O,  lightly,  lightly  tread.  The  storm  raged  fearfully.  When  shall 
I  see  you  aguin  ?  They  lived  very  happily.  They  were  agreeably 
disappointed.  Do  you  expect  them  to-morrow  ?  She  is  continually 
changing  her  mino.  It  cannot  be  true.  Perhaps  I  shall  go. 
Doubtless  it  U  true.    George  writes  elegantly. 

2.  Insert  the  following  adverbs  in  sentences  of  your  t)wn: — 
Where,   hopefully,  soon,  bravely,  yes,  surely,  undeniably,  sor- 
rowfully,  briefly,   quite,   below,   above,   ever,   constantly,  so,  yet, 
although,  no. 

134.  Classes  of  Adverbs. 

1.  Adverbs  may  be  divided  into  four  general  classes, — 
adverbs  of  place j  of  timej  of  cause,  of  maimer, 

2.  Adverbs  of  place  answer  the  questions  Whe7xf  Whither  f 
Whence  ? 

Ex. — Here,  there,  where,  herein,  therein,  wherein,  hither,  thither, 
whither,  hence,  thence,  whence,  above,  below,  up,  down,  yonder,  some- 
where, nowhere,  everywhere,  away,  aside,  aloof,  back,  forth,  off,  far, 
aboard,  ashore,  aloft,  aground,  forwards,  backwards,  outwards. 

3.  Adverbs  of  time  answer  the  questions  Whe7i?  How  long? 
How  often  ? 

Ex. — Now,  when,  then,  often,  immediately,  always,  frequently,  to-day. 
to-morrow,  yesterday,  ever,  never,  sometimes,  lately,  early,  again,  forever, 
soon,  hiiherto,  seldom,  rarely,  after,  ago,  anon,  hereafter. 

4.  Aviverbs  of  cause  answer  the  questions  Whyf    Wherefore  f 
Ex.— Why,  wherefore,  therefore,  then. 


148  ENGLISH   GKAMMAK. 

Causal  relations  are  commonly  expressed  hy  jihr as es  and  clauses. 

5.  Adverbs  of  manner  and  decree  answer  the  questions  How  ? 
How  much?  They  are  generally  derived  from  adjectives  denoting 
quality. 

Ex. — Faithfully,  fairly,  elegantly,  so,  thus,  well,  too,  very,  chiefly, 
quite,  partly,  wholly,  amiss,  scarcely,  nearly,  asunder,  however,  other- 
wise, together,  just,  less,  much,  least,  enough,  almost,  asunder,  headlong, 
generally,  somewhat,  excellently,  gracefully. 

6.  Modal  adverbs,  or  those  which  show  the  manner  of  the  asser- 
tion, belong  to  this  class. 

Ex.— Yes,  yea,  verily,  truly,  surely,  doubtless,  forsooth,  certainly,  no, 
nay,  not,  perhaps,  perchance,  indeed,  really,  haply,  possibly,  probably, 
nowise,  peradventure. 

7.  The  adverbs  when,  where,  why,  how,  &c.,  when  used  in  asking 
questions,  are  called  interrogative  adverbs. 

Ex. —  When  did  he  come  ? 

8.  Adverbs  of  manner  are  numerous.  Most  of  them  are  formed 
from  adjectives  by  adding  ly. 

Ex. — Bright,  bright-^?//  smooth,  smooth-??/. 

But  when  the  adjective  ends  in  ly,  the  phrase  is  commonly  used. 

Ex. — "  In  a  lovely  manner,"  instead  of  lovelily.  '^' 

9.  7fie7'e  is  used  as  an  expletive  to  introduce  a  sentence  when  the 
verb  to  be  denotes  existence.  It  is  also  sometimes  used  with  the 
verbs  seem,  appear,  come,  go,  and  others. 

Ex. — There  are  many  men  of  the  same  opinion.     Jjhere  went  out  a 
decree  from  Caesar  Augustus. 
In  this  use  it  has  no  meaning. 

10.  The  adverb  so  is  often  used  as  a  substitute  for  some  preceding 
word  or  group  of  words. 

Ex. — He  is  in  good  business,  and  is  likely  to  remain  so. 

11.  In  colloquial  use,  some  adverbs  limit  no  particular  word  or  words  in 
the  sentence,  and  are  said  to  be  used  independently. 

Ex.—  Well,  I  will  let  you  know,  if  I  decide  to  go.  Wh^/,  you  told  me  so 
yourself. 

135.  Conjunctiye  Adyerlbs. 
1.  Conjunctive  adverbs  are  those  which  express  the 


ETYMOLOGY — ADVERBS — COMPARISON.  149 

adyerbial  relation  of  a  dependent  clause,  and  connect  it 
vrith  the  verb,  the  adjective,  or  the  adverb  which  it 
"Modifies. 

Ex. — I  shall  meet  my  friend  when  the  boat  arrives. 

2.  They  are  equivalent  to  two  phrases,  the  one  containing  a  rela- 
tive pronoun,  the  other  its  antecedent. 

Ex.— The  lilies  grow  luhere  the  ground  is  moist,  =  The  lilies  grow  in 
that  -place  in  which  the  ground  is  moist. 

Here  the  phrase  in  that  place  modifies  (/roios,  and  the  phrase  in  which  modi- 
fies moist:  hence  where,  the  equivalent  of  the  two,  modifies  both.  For  the 
principal  conjunctive  adverbs,  see  (143,  18). 

3.  The  words  therefore,  loherefore,  hence,  whence,  comequenthj,  then,  now, 
besides,  likeioise,  also,  too,  moreover,  and  some  others,  are  adverbs,  and  at  tho 
same  time  are  used — either  alone  or  when  associated  with  other  connectives 
— to  join  propositions.  But,  unlike  conjunctive  adverbs,  they  connect  coordi- 
nate and  not  subordinate  clauses. 


136.  Exercise. 

1.  Tell  the  class  of  the  following  adverbs:— 

Very,  greatly,  perhaps,  therefore,  below,  to-morrow,  when,  there, 
purely,  truly,  always,  continually,  yesterday,  why,  sorrowfully,  pain- 
fully, down,  above,  here,  vainly,  exceedingly. 

2.  Point  out  the  conjunctive  adverbs  in  the  following  examples: — 
He  will  be  prepared  when  the  time  arrives.    The  patriot  answers 

whenever  his  country  calls.  Whither  I  go  ye  cannot  come.  It  was 
for  a  long  time  uncertain  where  the  gypsies  originated.  Newton, 
only  by  profound  study,  discovered  why  an  apple  falls  to  the  ground. 
The  Bible  teaches  us  how  to  guide  our  steps  aright.  Make  hay 
while  the  sun  shines,  (^hen  a  man's  coat  is  threadbare,  it  is  easy 
to  pick  a  hole  in  it.^ 


137.  Comparison  of  Adverbs. 

1.  Many  adverbs,    especially  those   denoting   manner, 
admit  of  comparison. 

Ex. — Brightly,  more  brightly,  most  brightly;  soon,  sooner,  soonest. 

2.  When  an  adjective  undergoes  comparison,  it  usually  shows  that  two  or 
'^ore  objects  are  compared  j  but  when  an  adverb  undergoes  the  same  change, 

13« 


150  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

it  shows  that  two  or  more  actions  or  qualities  are  compared-,    as,  **  James 
speaks  more  fluently  than  George  [speahs']." 

3.  The  following  adverbs  are  compared  irregularly :  III  or  badly ^ 
worse,  ivorst;  little,  less,  least;  far,  farther,  farthest;  much,  more, 
most;  well,  better,  best 


138.  Exercise. 

1.  Study  the  following  outline  for  parsing  adverbs:— ^ 
To  parse  an  adverb,  tell, — 

(1.)  What  part  of  speech  it  is,  and  why. 

(2.)  Compare  it  (where  it  admits  of  it),  and  tell  what  degree. 

(3.)  Tell  what  it  modifies, 

(4.)  Give  the  rule. 

2.  The  sun  shines  brightly, 

Br%iitiy is  2iTL  adverb;  it  modifies  the  meaning  of  the  verb; 

it  is  compared  (positive  brightly,  comparative 
more  brightly,  superlative  most  brightly) ;  it  is  in 
the  positive  degree,  and  modifies  the  verb  shines, 
according  to  Eule  IX.     (Eepeat  it.) 

3.  Mary  writes  more  elegantly  than  her  brother. 

More  elegrantly  .  is  an  adverb ;  it  modifies  the  meaning  of  the  verb ; 
it  is  compared  {elegantly,  more  elegantly,  most  ele- 
gantly) ;  it  is  in  the  comparative  degree,  and  modi- 
fies the  verb  writes,  according  to  Eule  IX.  (Ee- 
peat it.) 

4.  I  will  go  whenever  you  wish. 

Whenever is  a  conjunctive  adverb  of  time.     (Why?) 

(1.)  As  an  adverb  it  modifies  both  will  go  and 

wish,  according  to  Eule  IX. 

(2.)  As  a  connective  it  connects  the  subordinate 

clause  "  whenever  you  wish"  to  will  go.    Eule  XI. 

5.  Parse  the  adverbs  in  the  following  examples;  also  the  adjec- 
tives, the  VERBS,  and  the  pronouns  : — 

He  (Sir  Thomas  ■lore)  stands  unchangeably  on  the  centre  of 
eternal  right;  his  head,,  majestically  erect,  gloriously  lifted  up  to 
hea^'en,  bends  not  before  the  shock,  and  his  breast  receives  the 
tempest  only  to  shiver  it. — Giles.. 


ETYMOLOGY — PREPOSITIONS.  151 

No  human  fancy  can  take  in  this  mighty  space  in  all  its  grandeur, 
and  in  all  its  immensity ;  can  sweep  the  outer  boundaries  of  such  a 
creation ;  or  lift  itself  up  to  the  majesty  of  that  great  and  invisible 
arm,  on  which  all  is  suspended. — Chalmers. 

Hitherto  shalt  thou  come,  and  no  further;  and  here  shall  thy 
proud  waves  be  stayed. 

Where  I  could  not  be  honest,  I  never  yet  was  valiant. — ShaJs' 
speare. 

When  man  is  at  peace  with  man,  how  much  lighter  than  a  feather 
are  the  heaviest  metals  in  his  hand ! — Sterne. 

When  Music,  heavenly  maid,  w  as  young, 
While  yet  in  early  Gre.'ce  f>hc  sung. 
The  Passionsoft,  to  hem  lier  shell, 
Thronged^4iround  hcpma^  ccTT^ j Co llim. 
/  Yet  where  to  fincP&hfrniappiest  sp(y^l^elo^^vv 
I  Who  can  direct,  when  all  pretend  to  know '^f-Goldsmith, 

PREPOSITIONS. 
139.  Definition. 

1.  A  preposition  is  a  word  used  to  show  the  relation 

of  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  to  some  other  word. 

Ex. — The  ship  was  seen  from  the  citadel.  He  sailed  upon  the  ocean  in 
a  ship  of  war. 

2.  The  preposition  always  shows  a  relation  between  two  terms, 
— an  antecedent  and  a  subsequent.  The  subsequent  term  is  called  the 
object  of  the  preposition.  The  preposition  and  the  object  united 
form  a  dependent  element  of  the  sentence,  having  the  antecedent 
term  as  its  principal  element. 

3.  The  preposition  and  its  object  form  a  phrase.  When  the 
antecedent  term  is  a  noun,  the  phrase  is  of  the  nature  of  an  adjective. 
When  it  is  a  verb,  a  participle,  an  adjective,  or  an  adverb,  the  phrase 
is  of  the  nature  of  an  adverb  (sometimes  an  indirect  object). 

Ex. — The  rays  of  the  sun,  =  solar  rays.  The  case  was  conducted  with 
skill,  =  skilfully. 

4.  The  object  of  the  preposition  is  not  always  a  single  word :  it 
may  be  a  phrase  or  a  clause. 

Ex. — The  city  was  about  to  capitulate  when  Napoleon  arrived.  Much 
will  depend  on  wh(^  the  commissioners  are. 


152 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


5.  The  preposition  is  sometimes  placed  after  its  object. 
Ex. — While  its  song,  sublime  as  thunder,  rolls  the  woods  along. 

The  preposition  and  the  object  sometimes  precede  the  word  on 
which  they  depend. 

Ex. — Of  all  patriots,  Washington  was  the  noblest. 


110.  List  of  Prepositions. 


aboard, 

before. 

excepting. 

till, 

about, 

behind, 

for. 

to. 

above, 

below. 

from. 

touching. 

across, 

beneath, 

in,  into. 

toward. 

after. 

beside. 

notwithstanding, 

,  towards, 

against, 

besides. 

of. 

under. 

along, 

between. 

on. 

underneath, 

amid  or 

betwixt. 

over. 

until, 

amidst, 

beyond. 

past, 

unto. 

among, 

by, 

regarding, 

up. 

amongst, 

concerning. 

respecting, 

upon. 

around, 

down, 

round. 

with. 

at. 

during. 

since. 

within. 

athwart, 

ere, 

through. 

without. 

bating. 

except. 

throughout. 

1.  A  complex  preposition  consists  of  two  words,  and  is  parsed 
as  a  single  word. 

Ex. — According  to,  as  to,  as  far,  out  of,  instead  of,  because  of,  off  from, 
over  against,  round  about,  from  among,  from  between,  from  around,  from 
before,  and  the  like. 

The  first  word  of  the  phrase  is  sometimes  parsed  as  an  adverb.  According, 
contrary,  in  the  phrases  according  to,  contrary  to,  are  sometimes  regarded  as 
participles  or  adjectives  modifying  some  noun  in  the  sentence. 

2.  In  such  combinations  as  the  following,  put  in,  go  up,  go  down, 
cut  through,  pass  by,  climb  up,  and  others,  the  preposition  may  be 
parsed  as  an  adverb  when  it  is  not  followed  by  an  object. 

Ex. — The  captain  stood  in  for  the  shore.     They  rode  hj  in  haste. 

3.  Some  words  commonly  employed  as  prepositions  are  occasion- 
ally used  as  adverbs. 

Ex. — Before,  afber,  till,  until,  above,  beneath,  for,  on,  in,  &c. 


ETYMOLOGY — PREPOSITIONS.  153 

So  also  some  words  commonly  employed  as  adverbs  or  as  con- 
junctions are  sometimes  used  as  prepositions. 
Ex. — But,  save,  despite,  &c. 

Off  is  usually  an  adverb,  but  may  be  parsed  as  a  preposition,  when  followed 
by  an  object.  Instead  is  either  a  preposition  or  equivalent  to  a  preposition 
and  a  noun,  =  in  stead. 

4.  In  such  expressions  as  a  hunting,  a  fishing,  &c.,  if  authorized 
at  all,  the  a  may  be  regarded  as  itself  a  preposition,  or  a  contraction 
of  at,  in,  or  on. 

141.  Exercise. 

1.  Study  the  following  outline  for  parsing  the  preposition  : — 
To  parse  a  preposition,  tell, — 

(1.)  What  part  of  speech,  and  why. 

(2.)  Between  what  words  it  shows  the  relation. 

(3.)  Give  the  rule. 

2.  He  \f  Qui  from  England  to  France. 

From  .  .  is  ^preposition;  it  is  used  to  show  the  relation  of  a  noun 
or  a  pronoun  to  some  other  word ;  it  shows  the  relation  of 
the  noun  England  to  the  verb  loent,  according  to  Eule  XIII. 
(Repeat  it.) 

To  ....  is  2i  preposition ;  it  shows  the  relation  of  the  noun  France 
to  the  verb  went,  according  to  Rule  XIII. 

3.  Point  out  the  PREPOSiTioisrs  in  the  following  sentences,  and  explain 
their  relations : — 

He  heard  the  birds  sing  in  the  morning.  The  bud&  are  swelling 
in  the  sun's  warm  rays.  The  winds  will  come  from  the  distant 
south.  The  bees  gather  honey  from  the  flowers.  I  bring  fresh 
showers  for  the  thirsty  flowers  from  sea  and  stream.  I  shall  be 
Queen  of  the  May.  In  the  garden  the  crocus  blooms.  The  hills 
are  covered  with  a  carpet  of  green.  We  shall  have  pleasant  walks 
with  our  friends.  We  shall  seek  the  early  fruits  in  the  sunny 
valley. 

4.  Parse  the  Nouxs,  the  pronouns,  the  adverbs,  and  the  prepo- 
sitions in  the  folloiving  sentences: — 

Humility  mainly  becometh  the  converse  of  man  with  his  Maker, 
But  oftentimes  it  seemeth  out  of  place  in  the  intercourse  of  man 
with  man ; 


164  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Yea,  it  is  the  cringer  to  his  equal,  that  is  chiefly  seen  bold  to  hia 

God, 
While  the  martyr  whom  a  world  cannot  browbeat,  is  humble  as  a 

child  before  him. — Tapper. 

Of  mU  the  thoughts  of  God  that  are 
Borne  inward  unto  souls  afar 

Along  the  Psalmist's  music  deep, 
Now  tell  me  if  there  any  is 
For  gift  or  grace  surpassing  this — 

*'He  givetli  His  beloved  sleep." — Mrs.  Browning. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 
142.  ©efinition. 

1.  A  conj miction  is  a  word  used  to  connect  sentences 

or  the  parts  of  sentences. 

Ex. — The  horse  fell  over  the  precipice,  hui  the  rider  escaped.  The 
horse  and  rider  fell  over  the  precipice. 

In  the  first  example,  hxit  connects  two  sentences;  in  the  second,  and  con^ 
nects  the  two  parts,  horse  and  rider. 

2.  A  pure  conjunction  forms  no  part  of  the  material  (i52, 1)  or 
substance  of  a  sentence :  its  office  is  simply  to  unite  the  materials 
into  a  single  structure. 

3.  Besides  pure  conjunctions,  there  is  a  large  class  of  words  which 
enter  into  the  sentence  as  a  part  of  its  substance  and  at  the  same 
time  connect  different  elements  or  parts. 

Ex. — This  is  the  pencil  which  I  lost. 

Here  ichich  is  the  object  of  lost,  and  at  the  same  time  connects  the  de- 
pendent clause,  xchich  I  lost,  to  pencil.  All  such  words  are  called  connectives, 
or  conjunctive  words. 

143.  Classes  of  Connectives. 

1.  All  connectives  (whether  pure  conjunctions  or  con- 
junctive words)  are  divided  into  two  classes, — coordinate 
and  subordinate. 

2.  Coordinate  connectives  are  those  which  join  similar 
or  homogeneous  elements. 


ETYMOLOGY — CONJUNCTIONS.  155 

Ex. — John  AND  James  were  disciples. 

Here  John  and  James  are  similar  in  construction,  and.  have  a  common  re- 
lation to  the  predicate.  Two  elements  are  coordinate,  and  consequently  de- 
mand a  coordinate  conjunction,  when  they  are  placed  in  the  same  relation  or 
rank;  as,  "The  insects  devoured  leaves  and  blossoms."  Here  leaves  is  de- 
pendent on  devoured;  blossoms,  also,  is  not  only  dependent,  but  has  precisely 
the  same  sort  of  dependence  as  leaves ;  hence  they  are  coordinate  with  each 
other.  In  the  sentence,  "  The  insects  devoured  the  leaves  greedily,"  leave* 
and  greedily  are  both  dependent  on  devoured,  but  they  have  not  a  similar  de- 
pendence; hence  they  are  not  coordinate,  and  cannot  be  connected  by  and,  or 
any  other  coordinate  conjunction. 

3.  Coordinate  connectives  are  always  conjunctions,  and 
may  be  divided  into  three  classes, — copulative^  adversative, 
and  alternative. 

4.  Copulative  conjunctions  are  those  which  add  parts 
in  harmony  with  each  other. 

Ex. — The  day  dawned,  and  our  friends  departed. 

5.  The  copulative  conjunctions  are, — 

(a.)  And,  a  connective  of  the  most  general  character,  placing  the  con- 
nected parts  in  a  relation  of  perfect  equality,  without  modification  or 
emphasis. 

(6.)  So,  also,  likewise,  too,  besides,  moreover,  furthermore,  now,  hence, 
therefore,  wherefore,  consequently,  even,  connectives  associated  with  and  ex- 
pressed or  understood,  and  used  to  give  em,phasis  or  some  additional  idea. 

Ex. — Cromwell  was  a  successful  soldier;  [awd]  besides,  he  was  the 
greatest  statesman  of  his  age. 

(c.)  Both  —  and;  as  well  —  as;  not  only  —  but;  but  also ;  but  likewise; 
first  —  secondly:  these  connectives  are  employed  when  we  wish  not  only 
to  make  the  second  part  emphatic,  but  to  awaken  an  expectation  of  some 
addition. 

Ex. — Both  religion  and  reason  condemn  excess.  qTou  might  as  well 
deny  me  at  once  as  begin  to  find  excused  Not  only  the  wise  and  the 
learned,  but  also  the  common  people,  heard  him  gladly. 

As  these  parts  correspond  to  each  other,  these  connectives  are  called 
correlatives. 

6.  Adversative    conjunctions   are    those    w^hich    unite 

parts  in  opposition  to,  or  in  contrast  with,  each  other. 

Ex. — The  fish  was  brought  to  the  shore,  6m/  plunged  into  the  water 
again. 


156  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

7.  Adversative  conjunctions  are  employed, — 

(1.)  "When  the  second  part  is  placed  in  opposition  to  the  first 
Ex. — It  does  not  rain,  but  it  snows. 

(2.)  When  the  second  part  is  placed  in  opposition  to  a  suppose(t 
inference  from  the  first. 

Ex. — The  army  was  victorious,  hut  the  general  was  slain. 

Here,  lest  the  inference  should  be  that  all  was  prosperous,  the  second  clause 
preceded  by  hut  is  added. 

8.  The  adversative  conjunctions  are, — 

(a.)  But,  which  simply  shows  opposition  without  emphasis. 
Ex. — I  shall  go,  hut  I  shall  not  walk. 

(6.)  Yet,  still,  nevertheless,  notwithstanding,  however,  now,  and  some 
others,  which  are  associated  with  hut,  either  expressed  or  understood, 
and  give  emphasis  or  some  additional  idea. 

Ex. — The  delinquent  has  been  repeatedly  admonished,  {hut)  still  he 
is  as  negligent  as  ever. 

9.  AlternatiTe  conjunctions  are  those  which  offer  or 
deny  a  choice  between  two  things. 

Ex. — Obey  and  live,  or  disobey  and  die.  She  can  neither  sing  no/ 
play. 

10.  The  alternative  conjunctions  are, — 

(a.)  Or,  which  offers,  and  nor  {not  or),  which  denies  a  choico. 

(6.)  Else,  otherwise,  associated  with  or  for  the  sake  of  emphasis. 

(c.)  Either  and  neither,  correlatives  of  or  and  nor. 

Ex.— (^We  must  fighty  or  our  liberties  are  lost.  Thou  desirest  not  sacri- 
fice, else  would  I  give  it.  Neither  a  borrower  nor  a  lender  be.  Either 
the  Turk  or  the  Christian  shall  withdraw  his  forces. 

11.  Parts  standing  in  a  causal  relation  to  each  other  are  some- 
times coordinate;  but  usually  there  are,  in  such  cases,  two  con- 
nectives, one  expressed  and  the  other  understood. 

Ex. — The  south  wind  blows,  [and']  therefore  there  must  be  rain. 

12.  ISnborctinate  connectives  are  those  which  join  dis- 
similar or  heterogeneous  elements. 

Ex.— I  shall  go  when  the  stage  arrives. 

Here,  ioh€7i  joins  the  subordinate  clause  when  the  stage  arrives,  to  the  verb 
thall  go.     It  is  a  part  of  the  clause  itself,  being  equivalent  to  at  the  time  at 


ETYMOLOGY — CONJUNCTIONS.  157 

which.     Hence  it  should  be  introduced  in  naming  the  clause ;  but  not  so  with 
the  pure  coordinate  conjunctions. 

13.  The  connected  element  is  always  a  proposition;  it  is  sub- 
ordinate, and  consequently  demands  a  subordinate  connective,  be- 
cause it  becomes  ■  merely  a  limiting  expression  of  the  antecedent 
term  on  which  it  depends.  It  is  unlike  the  part  with  which  it  is 
connected,  in  its  form,  in  its  relation  or  rank,  and  in  its  grammatical 
character. 

14.  A  subordinate  connective,  like  a  preposition,  always  shows  a  relation 
of  dependence.  But  the  second  term  is  a  proposition  instead  of  a  noun  or 
a  pronoun. 

15.  Subordinate  connectives  are  divided  into  three 
classes, — those  which  connect  substantive  clauses,  those 
which  connect  adjective  clauses,  and  those  which  connect 
adverbial  clauses. 

16.  Substantive  clauses  containing  a  statement  (l63,  3)  are  con- 
nected by  the  conjunctions  that,  that  not,  and  sometimes  but,  but  that. 

Ex. — Addison  acknowledged  that  he  would  rather  inform  than  divert 
his  readers. 

Substantive  clauses  containing  an  inqniry  are  connected  by  the 
interrogatives  who,  which,  what,  tvhere,  whither,  whence,  when,  how 
long,  how  often,  why,  wherefore,  how. 

Ex. — I  wish  to  know  where  we  may  look  for  redress. 

17  Adjective  clauses  are  connected  by  the  relative  pronouns 
who,  ivhich,  what,  that,  whoever,  whosoever,  whichever,  whichsoever^ 
ivhatever,  whatsoever,  and  sometimes  the  relative  adverbs  tvhy,  when^ 
where. 

Ex. — A  writer  who  abuses  the  confidence  of  friends  should  be  treated 
with  contempt. 

18.  Adverbial  clauses  are  joined  to  the  principal  element  by, — 
(L'   Connectives  which  denote  place:  these  are,  tvhere,  whither, 
whence,  wherever,  whithersoever,  as  far  as,  as  long  as,  farther  than. 

Ex. — We  feel  that  we  are  on  the  spot  where  the  first  scene  of  our  his- 
tory was  laid. —  Webster. 

(2.)  Connectives  which  denote  time:  these  are,  when,  while, 
whilst,  as,  before,  after,  ere,  till,  until,  since,  whenever,  as  long  as,  as 
soon  rw,  the  moment,  fhr  instant,  as  frequeiiihi  rr..*^,  r/x  ofien  os. 

11 


168  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Ex. — He  scarce  had  ceased  when  the  superior  fiend 
Was  moving  to  the  shore. — Milton. 

(3.)  Connectives  which  denote  causal  relations :  these  are  the  con- 
junctions because,  for,  as,  whereas,  since,  inasmuch  (causal),  if,  unless, 
though,  lest,  except,  provided,  provided  that  (conditional),  that,  that 
not,  lest  (final),  though,  although,  notwithstanding,  however,  what- 
ever, whoever,  while,  with  the  correlatives  yet,  still,  nevertheless  (ad- 
versative). 

Ex. — A  timid  man  shrinks  from  an  enterprise  because  he  fears  a  dan- 
ger may  be  in  the  way. 

(4.)  Connectives  which  denote  manner:  these  are,  as,  just  as, 
so  —  as,  same  —  as  (correspondence),  so  —  that,  such  —  that  (conse- 
quence), as  —  as  (comparison  of  equality),  the  —  the,  the  —  so  much 
the  (proportionate  equality),  than,  more  than,  less  than  (comparison 
of  inequality). 

Ex. — True  politeness  requires  you  to  act  as  a  kind  heart  dictates. 

IM.  Exercise. 

1.  Study  the  following  outline  for  parsing  conjunctions. 
In  parsing  a  conjunction  or  connective,  tell, — 

(1.)  What  part  of  speech,  and  why. 
(2.)  To  what  class  it  belongs. 
(3.)  What  elements  it  connects. 
(4.)  Give  the  rule. 

2.  Socrates  and  Plato  were  distinguished  philosophers. 

And  ...  is  a  conjunction;  it  is  used  to  connect  sentences,  or  the 
parts  of  sentences ;  coordinate,  because  it  connects  similar 
elements;  it  connects  Socrates  and  Plato,  according  to 
Eule  XI.     (Repeat  it.) 

3.  Wisdom  is  better  than  riches. 

Tlian  .  .  is  a  conjunction  (why?);  subordinate,  because  it  connects 
dissimilar  elements ;  it  connects  the  proposition  than  riches 
[are)  with  better,  according  to  Rule  XVI.     (Repeat  it.) 

4.  We  must  either  obey  or  be  punished. 

Eitlier  .  is  a  coordinate  conjunction  (alternative),  used  to  awaken  ex- 
pectation of  an  additional  element,  and  also  to  introduce  it 
with  emphasis. 


ETYMOLOGY — CONJUNCTIONS.  159 

Or ....  is  a  coordinate  conjunction  (alternative),  and  with  its  cor- 
relative either  is  used  to  connect  the  predicate  must  be 
punished  with  must  obey.     (Rule  XI. :  Repeat  it.) 

5.  Though  he  slay  me,  yet  will  I  trust  in  him. 

Tboug^b  is  a  subordinate  conjunction  (adversative),  used  to  awaken 

expectation  of  an  additional  idea. 
Yet  ...  is  a  subordinate  conjunction  (adversative),  and,   with  its 

correlative   though,   is  used  to   connect  the   subordinate 

clause  he  slay  me,  with  the  principal  one  will  I  trust  in 

him,  according  to  Rule  XVI. 

6.  Tell  which  of  the  following  connectives  are  coordinate,  and  which 
are  subordDr  te: — 

The  pen  and  ink  are  poor.  The  horse  and  the  rider  were  plunged 
into  the  water.  If  you  come,  I  shall  have  the  work  in  readiness. 
When  the  million  applaud,  seriously  ask  yourself  what  harm  you 
have  done.  He  knew  that  he  had  disobeyed  instructions.  That 
which  cannot  be  cured  must  be  endured.    Take  heed  lest  ye  fall. 

7.  Parse  the  conjunctions,  the  adjectives,  and  the  verbs,  in 
the  following  examples : — 

It  is  to  the  Union  that  we  owe  our  safety  at  home,  and  our  con- 
sideration and  dignity  abroad.  Every  year  of  its  duration  has 
teemed  with  fresh  proof  of  its  utility  and  its  blessings ;  and,  although 
our  territory  has /Stretched  out  wider  and  wider  and  our  population 
spread  farther  and  further,  they  have  not  outrun  its  protection  or 
its  benefits. —  Webster. 

In  a  word,  point  us  to  the  loveliest  and  happiest  neighborhood  in 
the  world  on  which  we  dwell, — and  we  tell  you  that  our  object  is 
to  render  this  whole  earth,  with  all  its  nations  and  kindreds  and 
tongues  and  people,  as  happy  as — nay,  happier  than — such  a  neigh- 
borhood.—  Way  land. 

Thy  Hector,  wrapped  in  everlasting  sleep. 

Shall  neither  hear  thee  cry,  nor  see  thee  weep. — Pope, 

'Twas  but  a  kindred  sound  to  move ; 
For  pity  melts  the  heart  to  love. — Druden. 


160  ENGLISH   GRAMMAK 


INTERJECTIONS. 
145.  Definition. 

1.  An  interjection  is  a  word  used  to  express  some 
strong  or  sudden  emotion  of  the  mind. 

Ex. — Alas !  I  then  have  chid  away  my  friend. 

2.  As  the  interjection  is  not  the  sign  of  an  idea,  but  merely  an  expression 
of  emotion,  it  cannot  have  any  definable  signification  or  grammatical  con- 
struction ;  but,  as  it  is  of  frequent  use  in  colloquial  and  impassioned  discourse, 
it  should  not  be  omitted  in  parsing. 

3.  "  Interjection"  is  derived  from  the  Latin  word  "  ini  "'"jectus,"— 
thrown  between,  that  is,  between  the  parts  of  the  sentence ;  but  it  is 
often  placed  at  the  beginning  or  at  the  end  of  a  sentence. 

4.  The  most  common  interjections  are  those  expressing, — 
Joy  or  exultation, — hey,  hurra,  huzza. 

Surprise, — aha,  hah,  ah. 

A  wisb  for  attention, — ho,  lo,  halloo,  hem. 

Aversion  or  contempt,— ^e,  pshaw,  pugh,  tush,  foh. 

Sorrow,  g-rief,  or  compassion, — alas,  woe,  alack,  0, 

A  wisli  for  silence, — hist,  hush,  mum, 

lian^uor, — heigh-ho,  heigh-ho-hum. 

I^aug^liter, — ha,  ha,  he,  he. 

Some  words  used  as  interjections  may  be  parsed  as  verbs,  nouns,  or  ad- 
jectives; as  in  the  sentence,  "Strange  !  cried  I," — where  strange  is  an  adjective, 
and  the  expression  is  equivalent  to  "It  is  strange;"  and  in  the  sentence, 
"  Behold !  how  well  he  bears  misfortune's  frowns  !"  behold  is  a  verb  in  the  im, 
perative,  equivalent  to  behold  ye. 

146.  Exercise. 

1.  Outline  for  parsing  an  interjection: — 
To  parse  an  interjection,  tell, — 

(1.)  What  part  of  speech,  and  why? 
(2.)  Give  the  rule. 

2.  Hark !  they  whisper. 

Hark  .  is  an  interjection  (why  ?) ;  it  is  used  independently.   Rule  X. 

3.  Parse  all  the  words  in  the  following  examples: — 

Oh,  say,  what  mystic  spell  is  that  which  so  blinds  us  to  the  suffer- 


ETYMOLOGY — INTERJECTIONS.  161 

ings  of  our  brethren, — which  deafens  our  ear  to  the  voice  of  bleed- 
ing humanity,  when  it  is  aggravated  by  the  shriek  of  dying  thou- 
sands.— Chalmers. 

Woe  worth  the  chase !  woe  worth  the  day  I 
That  cost  thy  life,  my  gallant  grey. — Scott. 

Oh,  now  you  weep ;  and  I  perceive  you  feel 

The  dint  of  pity ;  these  are  gracious  drops. 

Kind  souls !    What !  weep  you  when  you  but  behold 

Our  Csesar's  vesture  wounded !     Look  you  here ! 

Here  is  himself,  marred  as  you  see,  with  traitors. — Shakspeare. 

Hail !  holy  light,  offspring  of  heaven  first-born, 
Or  of  the  Eternal,  co-eternal  beam ! — Milton. 

Unfading  Hope !  when  life's  last  embers  burn, 
When  soul  to  soul,  and  dust  to  dust,  return, 
Heaven  to  thy  charge  resigns  the  awful  hour ! 
Oh !  then,  thy  kingdom  comes !     Immortal  Power  I 
What  though  each  spark  of  earth-born  rapture  fly 
The  quivering  lip,  pale  cheek,  and  closing  eye ! 
Bright  to  the  soul  thy  seraph  hands  convey 
The  morning  dream  of  life's  eternal  day ! — 
Then,  then,  the  triumph  and  the  trance  begin, 
And  all  the  phoenix  spirit  burns  within ! — Campbell, 


162 


ENGLISH   GKAMMAE. 


QUESTIONS  FOR  EEYIEW. 


"What  is  Etymology  ? 

What  is  a  word  ? 

How  are  words  divided  according  to 
their  meaning  and  use?  According 
to  their  sounds  ?  According  to  their 
significant  parts? 

What  are  declinable  words  ?  Inde- 
clinable ? 

How  many  parts  of  speech  are  there  ? 
Name  them.  Define  each.  What 
part  of  speech  is  «n,  in  the  sentence 
"  Un  is  a  prefix"  ?  Why  ?  What  is  a 
proper  noun  ?  A  common  noun  ?  A 
collective  noun  ?  An  abstract  noun  ? 
A  verbal  noun  ? 

Give  an  example  of  a  noun  of  each 
kind. 

What  are  the  properties  of  the  noun  ? 

What  is  Person  ?  Define  each  per- 
son. 

When  is  a  noun  in  the  first  or  second 
person  ? 

What  is  Number?  Define  each 
number. 

•**~Give  the  rule  for  forming  the  plural 
of  nouns  regularly. 

How  do  nouns  ending  in/or/e  form 
the  plural?  Nouns  ending  in  o/  Nouns 
ending  in  y?  What  nouns  have  a 
very  irregular  plural  ? 

What  nouns  have  no  plural  ? 

Crive  the  rule  for  the  plural  of  com- 
pound nouns. 

How  are  other  parts  of  speech  used 
as  nouns  pluralized  ? 

What  is  the  rule  for  the  plural  of 
single  names?  Of  complex  names? 
Of  a  title  and  name  ? 

Mention  three  nouns  that  have  no 
singular.  Three  that  are  either  singu- 
lar or  plural.  Three  that  are  alike  in 
both  numbers. 

What  is  Gender?  How  many  genders 
are  there?  Define  each.  How  can 
inanimate  objects  become  masculine  or 
feminine  ?  Name  the  three  modes  of 
distinguishing  the  sexes. 

What  is  Case?  How  many  cases 
are  there  ?  Define  each.  How  is  the 
possessive  regularly  formed  ?  When 
is  the  apostrophe  only  added?  How 
may  you  know  the  nominative  case? 
The  possessive  ?     The  objective  ? 

What  is  Declension  ?     Parsing  ? 

What  is  an  Adjective?     Name  the 


two  classes.     The  three  kinds  of  limit- 
ing adjectives. 

How  many  Articles  are  there  ?  De- 
fine each.  When  is  each  used  ?  When 
is  no  article  needed  ? 

What  is  a  Pronominal  Adjective? 
Name  the  principal  ones.  What  are 
distributives?  Demonstratives?  In- 
definites? Reciprocals?  Name  the 
classes  of  Numeral  Adjectives. 

What  is  a  Qualifying  Adjective? 
A  Participial  Adjective  ? 

What  is  Comparison?  Define  the 
three  degrees. 

What  may  comparison  show  in  re- 
spect to  intensitij?     The  terms? 

Give  the  rule  for  forming  the  com- 
parative and  superlative  of  mono- 
syllables. Of  words  of  more  than 
one  syllable.  Mention  five  adjectives 
compared  irregularly.  What  adjec- 
tives are  not  compared  ? 

What  is  a  Pronoun  ?  What  four  re- 
lations does  the  pronoun  represent? 
What  is  the  Antecedent?  Into  what 
three  classes  are  pronouns  divided? 
What  properties  have  pronouns  in 
common  with  nouns? 

Define  and  name  the  Personal  Pro- 
nouns. Name  the  different  uses  of  It. 
Of  Thou  and  You.  Name  the  com- 
pound personal  pronouns.  Decline 
the  pronouns.  Where  do  you  use  3Ty 
and  Mine? 

What  is  a  Relative  Pronoun  ?  How 
does  the  relative  difi"er  from  the  per- 
sonal pronoun?  Name  the  simple 
relatives.  What  can  you  say  of  What  ? 
Of  That?  Name  the  compound  rela- 
tives, and  give  the  rule  for  forming 
them. 

Define  and  name  the  Interrogative 
Pronouns.  What  besides  pronouns 
are  used  in  asking  questions? 

What  is  a  Verb  ?  What  is  the  mean- 
ing of  affirm  ?  What  can  you  say  of 
Be  ?  When  is  a  verb  attributive  ?  De- 
fine the  sicbject.  How  are  verbs  divided 
according  to  their  nse?  Define  a 
Transitive  Verb.  An  Intransitive. 
What  do  you  mean  by  an  Active, 
Passive,  and  Neuter  Verb  ?  Wh  at  can 
you  say  of  this  distinction  ?  What 
is  the  object  of  a  transitive  verb  ?  Can 
the  same  verb  be  both  transitive  and 


ETYMOLOGY — QUESTIONS   FOR   REVIEW. 


163 


intransitive?  How  are  verbs  divided 
according  to  tlieir  form?  Define  a 
Regular  Verb,  an  Irregular  Verb,  a  De- 
fective, an  Auxiliary,  an  Impersonal. 
—  What  properties  belong  to  verbs  ? 
What  is  Voice?  Define  the  Active 
voice.  The  Passive.  What  verbs  can 
have  the  passive  voice  ?  W^hat  are  the 
uses  of  the  passive  voice?  Of  the 
active  ? 

What  is  Mode  ?  Define  each  mode. 
What  modes  are  used  in  principal 
propositions  ?  What  one  in  subordi- 
nate propositions?  What  one  in 
abridged  propositions  ? 

What  is  a  Participle?  Wby  so 
called  ?  What  is  the  mode  of  forming 
the  participles  ?  How  many  Participles 
are  there  ?  How  many  forms  ?  De- 
fine the  Present  Active  Participle. 
Name  the  uses  of  it.  What  can  you 
say  of  the  form  "  is  being  built,"  and 
the  like? 

Define  the  Present  Passive  Parti- 
ciple ;  the  Perfect  Active ;  the  Perfect 
Passive.  When  is  the  participle  predi- 
cated ?     When  assumed  ? 

What  is  Tense  ?  What  are  the  four 
ways  of  considering  an  action  or  event  ? 
What  is  meant  by  a,  point  of  time  ?  A 
period?  What  are  relative  tenses? 
Absolute  ?     How  many  of  each  / 

Define  the  Present  Tense  in  the 
indicative  mode.  How  is  it  used? 
The  Present  Perfect.  How  used  ?  The 
Past  Tense.  How  used?  The  Past 
Perfect.  How  used?  The  Future. 
The  Future  Perfect. 

How  many  tenses  has  each  mode  ? 
What  is  the  signification  of  the  tenses 
in  the  Subjunctive  mode?  In  the 
Potential?  "in  the  Infinitive ?  In  the 
Imperative  ? 

What  are  the  forms  of  the  verb  ? 
Name  and  define  each.  Give  the  form 
for  each  division  of  time. 

What  are  Auxiliary  Verbs?  Name 
them.   For  what  are  they  used  ?   Con-  ' 


jugate  them.  What  is  the  signification 
of  he?  Of  do?  Of  have?  Of  shall 
and  will?  Give  the  rules  for  the  use 
of  shall  and  will.  What  is  the  signifi- 
cation of  7?jo?/f  oi  can?  of  7nust?  Show 
how  the  auxiliaries  combine  to  form 
the  tenses  of  the  Indicative  mode. 
Of  the  Potential  mode. 
-=-What  are  the  Number  and  Person 
of  the  verb  ?  How  do  you  distinguish 
them  ? 

What  is  the  Conjugation  of  the 
verb  ?  The  Principal  Parts  ?  Conju- 
gate the  verb  be  in  all  the  modes  and 
tenses.  Conjugate  the  verb  ^ote.  How 
is  a  verb  conjugated  interrogatively  ? 
Negatively  ?  Give  the  list  of  Irregu- 
lar Verbs.  Name  the  Defective  Verbs. 
What  is  a  Redundant  Verb  ? 

AVhat  is  an  Adverb?  Name  the 
three  ways  of  expressing  an  adverbial 
idea.  Adverbs  of  Place  answer  what 
questions?  Adverbs  of  Time?  Ad- 
verbs of  Cause  ?  Adverbs  of  Manner 
and  Degree?  What  are  Modal  Ad- 
verbs? What  are  Conjunctive  Ad- 
verbs ?  What  adverbs  admit  of  com- 
parison ? 

What  is  a  Preposition?  What  do 
you  mean  by  the  object  of  the  prepo- 
sition ?  What  constitutes  a  phrase? 
What  is  a  Complex  Preposition  ? 

What  is  a  Conjunction?  What  is 
the  office  of  conjunctions  ?  Name  the 
two  /lasses  of  connectives.  How  many 
classes  of  coordinate  connectives  are 
there?  What  are  Copulative  Con- 
junctions? Name  them.  Adversa- 
tive Conjunctions?  When  are  they 
used?  Name  them.  Alternative  Con- 
junctions ?     Name  them. 

What  are  Subordinate  Connectives  ? 
Name  the  three  classes.  How  are  sub- 
stantive clauses  connected  ?  Adjective 
clauses?     Adverbial  clauses? 

What  is  an  Interjection?  Name 
the  most  common. 


164  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


SYNTAX. 

147.  Preliminary  Deyelopment— Sentence-Making. 

1.  Syntax  treats  of  the  construction  of  sentences. 

2.  A  jsentenee  is  a  thought  expressed  in  words. 

Ex. — The  flowers  fade.  The  sun  is  shining.  The  boy  heeded  not  his 
father's  advice.  Socrates  was  unmoved  when  the  sentence  of  death  was 
pronounced  against  him. 

Syntax  signifies  putting  together.  Thus,  the  words  in  these  examples  are 
put  together, — but  in  such  a  manner  as  to  say,  affi,rm,  or  assert  something.  If 
joined  thus, — the  fading  flowers,  the  shining  sun,  the  boy  heeding  not  his 
father's  advice,  Socrates  unmoved,  &c., — they  would  not  say,  tell,  or  assert 
any  thing :  i.e.  they  would  not  express  a  thought. 

3.  To  express  a  thought,  we  must  say  something  of 
some  object. 

Ex. — The  moon  is  rising  in  the  east. 

The  object  here  is  the  moon;  we  say  of  it,  is  rising.  When  we  say  or 
assert  something,  as  we  do  here,  it  is  implied  that  we  know  or  believe  what  we 
say, — or  we  speak  as  if  we  knew  or  believed  what  we  said.  If  we  know  of 
the  rising,  but  do  not  know  what  object  is  rising,  we  can  still  speak,  but  so 
as  only  to  intimate  what  we  know,  and  seek  for  what  we  do  not  know.  Thus, 
*'What  is  rising?"  If  ignorant  of  the  act,  but  not  of  the  object,  we  should 
say,  "  What  is  the  moon  doing  ?"  If  we  did  not  know  the  2^lctce,  we  should  say, 
"  Where  is  the  moon  rising  ?"  Thus,  a  sentence  may  express  knowledge,  or  igno- 
rance. It  may  also  express  our  feelings  or  desires.  "  How  beautifully  the 
moon  is  rising  in  the  east  I"     "  Give  me  that  book." 

4.  The  subject  represents  that  of  which  something  is 
said  or  affirmed. 

Ex. — ^The  trees  grow;  the  clouds  are  beautiful;  is  reading; 

is  coming ;  was  beheaded.     Is the  capital  ? 

Let  the  pupil  point  out  the  subjects,  and  supply  appropriate  ones  in  place 
of  the  blanks. 

5.  The  predicate  represents  that  which  is  said  or 
affirmed. 


SYNTAX. 


165 


Ex. — The  house  is  built;   the  rain  is  falling;  the  boy  ;  the 

duck ;  the  daisy .     Will  Walter ? 

Remark. — The  predicate  is  sometimes  used  to  deny,  ask  for,  command,  or 
exclaim;  and  the  term  say,  affirm,  or  assert  applies  to  either  case  (80,  3). 

Observe  that  in  these  examples  we  say  only  one  thing  of  one  object. 

6.  We  may  say  one  thing  of  several  objects,  or  seTe- 
ral  things  of  one  object. 

Ex. — Lilies,  roses,  asters,  hyacinths,  and  dahlias  hloom. 

The  bird  chirps,  sings,  hops,  builds  a  nest,  lays  eggs,  and  feeds  her  young. 

are  cities  of  New  York. 
are  branches  of  the  Mississippi. 
-,  -j  empty  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
are  factors  of  72. 
are  vowels. 


are 


The  days  of  the  week 
The  parts  of  a  tree 
The  seasons  of  the  year 
The  States  of  the  Union  ^ 

Let  the  blanks  be  filled  by  the  pupil.  The  two  cases  may  then  be  com- 
bined, thus : — "  The  oranges,  apples,  lemons,  peaches,  and  pears,  are  ripe, 
mellow,  sweet,  juicy,  and  delicious." 

7.  A  sentence  expresses, — 

(1.)  An  indefinite  thought,  when  the  subject  or  the  predicate  is 
a  general  term  without  limitations. 

Men  formed. 

Any  word,  as  a  common  noun,  a  verb,  a  participle,  or  an  adjective,  is  a 
general  term  when  it  can  apply  to  any  number  of  individuals.  Thus,  an 
adjective,  as  white,  may  apply  to  many  objects,  as,  tohite  house,  ichite  snow, 
lohite  birds,  &c. ;  the  verb  run  may  express  the  action  of  many  objects;  a 
common  noun,  as  men,  in  the  example  above,  may  belong  to  many  classes  ; 
there  may  ha  few  or  many,  old  or  young,  rich  or  poor,  good  or  had,  strong  or 
loeak,  brave  or  cowardly,  wise  or  umoise,  &c.  The  verb  formed  has  nothing 
joined  to  it  to  show  what,  where,  lohen,  how,  or  why  they  formed. 

(2.)  A  definite  thought,  when  the  subject  and  the  predicate  are 
properly  limited. 

To  limit  the  subject,  we  may  join  to  it, — 

(a.)  The  definite  article,  to  show  that  some  particular  men  are  intended. 
The  men  formed. 


166  ENGLISH    GEAMMAK. 

(b.)  A  numeral  adjective,  to  restrict  the  numher. 

The  twenty  men  formed. 

(c.)  A  qualifying:  adjective,  to  show  lohat  kind,  and  thereby  to  exclude 
all  others. 

The  twenty  young  men  formed. 

{d.)  An  adjective  expression,  to  point  them  out  by  showing  how  they 
were  regarded. 

The  twenty  young  men  wlio  were  the  pride  of  the  town  formed. 

To  limit  the  predicate,  we  may  join  to  it, — 

(a.)  An  adverb,  to  determine  the  time. 

The  men  ....  immediately  formed. 

h.)  A  noun,  to  show  tohat  they  formed. 

The  men  ....  immediately  formed  a  combination. 

(c.)  An  adverbial  expression,  to  show  ichy  they  formed  a  combination. 

The  men  ....  immediately  formed  a  combination,  that  they  mig-ht 
free  the  people  from  these  nig^htly  invaders. 

Thus  we  have  the  definite  thought  intended,  namely, — 

The-twenty-young-men-who  were  the  pride  of  the  town-immediately- 
formed-a  combination-that  they  might  free  the  people  from  these  nightly 
invaders. 

Observe,  here, — 

(1.)  We  have  one  subject  and  one  predicate  (6,  above). 

(2.)  That  each,  to  become  definite,  must  have  many  added  words. 

(3.)  As  the  thought  becomes  more  and  more  definite,  the  sentence  becomes 
more  and  more  extended,  and  the  definite  thought  is  obtained  from  the  indefi- 
nite thought  by  various  modifications. 

8.  A  modifier  is  a  word  or  a  group  of  words  joined  to 
a  term  to  limit,  extend,  or  in  some  way  to  determine,  its 
application. 

Ex. — Men, — ten  men,  all  men,  the  men  of  the  last  century;  seek — the 
lost — diligently — in  every  place. 

9.  The  subject,  the  predicate,  and  the  modifiers  of  each, 
form  the  elements  of  the  sentence. 

Ex. — CAarZes's— resignation— filled — all  Europe — with  astonishment. 
Observe,  here  and  above,  that  some  elements  are  single  words  and  some 
are  groups,  and  that  each  expresses  an  idea. 


SYNTAX — EXERCISE.  167 

10.  The  uniting  of  elements  into  a  sentence  is  called 
construction,  or  isyntliesis ;  the  separation  of  a  sentence 
into  its  elements  is  called  analyisis. 

Remark. — As  a  sentence  is  a  thought  and  its  expression,  so  its  elements 
are  ideas  and  their  expressions.  The  first  steps  in  analysis  should  be  guided 
by  the  prominent  ideas  which  constitute  the  thought.  In  the  final  analysis, 
all  expressions  should  be  reduced  to  single  icords.     Hence, — 

11.  Syntax  is  naturally  divided  into  syntax  of  sentences,  syntax 
of  elements^  and  syntax  of  words. 


148.  Exercise. 

In  thefoUowing  examples,  point  out  the  subject  and  the  predicate,  and 
unite  them  to  form  the  indefinite  thought ;  then  point  out  the  modifiers 
of  the  subject,  explaining  the  limitations;  then  the  modifiers  of  the 
predicate  in  the  same  manner,  and  show  how  the  definite  thought  is 
expressed : — 

The  clouds  are  gathering.  Humboldt  wrote  Kosmos.  The 
fashions  change.  Madeira  has  a  fine  climate.  Do  all  birds 
migrate?  The  wind  is  east.  The  weathercock  is  rusty.  Caesar 
crossed  the  Eubicon.  The  Rubicon  is  an  Italian  river.  Coleridge 
wrote  "The  Ancient  Mariner."  The  drone  is  an  idle,  lazy  bee. 
The  best  tobacco  grows  in  Cuba.  A  continent  is  a  large  island. 
Thimble  is  derived  from  thumb.     Humility  is  a  graceful  ornament. 

Travellers  can  ascend,  by  a  winding  road,  to  the  top  of  Mt. 
Washington.  The  climate  of  Florida  is  favorable  to  invalids.  A 
man's  word  should  be  kept  sacred.  Solon,  the  Athenian  lawgiver, 
lived  about  six  hundred  years  before  Christ.  There  is  through  all 
nature  a  regular  succession  of  events.  Montaigne,  the  entertaining 
French  essayist  and  philosopher,  travelled  on  horseback,  from  his 
chateau  in  France,  through  Germany  and  Switzerland,  into  Italy. 
Apicius,  a  Eoman  glutton,  having  spent  seven  and  a  half  million 
dollars  in  the  gratification  of  his  palate,  and  finding  he  had  but 
three  hundred  thousand  dollars  left,  killed  himself  for  fear  of 
dying  of  hunger.  A  basket,  left  on  the  ground  and  overgrown  by 
acanthus,  suggested  the  Corinthian  capital.  The  Giant-killer  with 
the  familiar  name  has  the  whole  heart  of  the  boy. 

When  I  look  upon  the  tombs  of  the  great,  every  emotion  of  envy 
dies  within  me.  The  sumptuous  cities  which  have  lighted  the 
world  since  the  beginning  of  time,  are  now  beheld  only  in  the 


168  ENGLISH   GRAMMAK. 

pictures  of  the  historian  or  the  poet.  'Whenever  the  queen  bee 
goes  forth  to  take  the  air^  many  of  the  small  bees  attend  upon  hei\ 
guarding  her  before  and  behind.  Longfellow,  in  the  "  Psalm  of 
Life/'  one  of  his  best-known  poems,  says  that  our  hearts,  like 
muffled  drums,  are  beating  funeral  marches  to  the  grave.  The  life 
of  Agricola,  the  Roman  general  who  conquered  Britain,  was  written 
by  his  son-in-law  Tacitus,  the  celebrated  Latin  historian.  The 
Venetians,  while  under  Austrian  rule,  were  a  nation  in  mourning. 
Absence  of  mind  which  is  the  result  of  thinking  of  something  else 
is  quite  different) from  absence  of  mind  which  is  the  result  of 
thinking  of  nothing  at  all. 

SYNTAX  OF  SENTENCES. 
149.  Sentences  classified  by  their  Use  as  a  Whole. 

1.  Sentences  considered  as  a  whole  are, — 

(1.)  Declarative,  or  those  which  declare  something  as  real  and 
absolute,  or  as  possible,  probable,  obligatory,  or  necessary. 

Ex. — I  have  found  favor  in  the  sight  of  the  king.  It  may  rain.  We 
Ehould  pay  our  debts.     The  work  must  be  done. 

The  declarative  sentence  forms  the  main  body  of  every  species  of  com- 
position. It  may  be  positive  or  negative;  its  mode  may  be  indicative  or 
potential. 

(2.)  Interrogative,  or  those  which  ask  a  question. 

Ex. — Doth  my  father  yet  live  ?     Can  a  mother  forget  her  child  ? 

Interrogative  sentences  are  used  either  to  obtain  information  or  gain 
assent;  as,  "  Who  opened  the  door  ?"     "Doth  God  pervert  judgment?" 

An  interrogative  sentence  is  direct  -when  it  can  be  answered  by  yes  or  no  ; 
indirect  when  it  is  introduced  by  an  interrogative  (78,  2,  5)  and  cannot  be 
answered  by  yea  or  no;  as,  "Will  you  ride  to  town  to-day  ?"  "Who  is  walk- 
ing in  the  garden  ?" 

(3.)  Imperative,  or  those  which  express  a  command,  an  entreaty, 
an  exhortation,  or  a  prayer. 

Ex.— Let  justice  be  done.  Do  extricate  my  suffering  friend.  Let 
love  be  without  dissimulation.    Thy  kingdom  come. 

An  imperative  sentence  is  determined  in  character  by  the  rank  of  the 
parties  involved  (89,  15). 

(4.)  Exclamatory,  or  those  which  express  emotion. 
Ex.— The  foe  has  come !     Was  it  not  strange !     Make  haste ! 


SYNTAX — CLASSIFICATION   OF   SENTENCES.         169 

Exclamatory  sentences  are  often  fragmentary,  partaking  of  tlie  nature  of 
anterjections;  as, ''Strange!"     "Impossible!"     "To  arms!" 

2.  A  mixed  sentence  is  one  which  is  composed  of  two  different 
classes. 

Ex, — Give  me  a  place  to  stand,  and  I  will  move  the  world.  They 
entered  indeed  upon  the  work ;  but  why  did  they  not  continue  ? 


150.  Sentences  classified  by  their  Propositions. 

1.  All  sentences  consist  either  of  a  single  proposition  or 
of  two  or  more  united  propositions,  and  are  divided 
into, — 

(1.)  Simple  sentences,  or  those  which  contain  but  one  propo- 
sition. 

Ex. — The  wind  blows.  Will  you  heed  the  warning?  Obey  your 
parents.     How  feeble  is  man  I 

(2.)  Complex  sentences,  or  those  which  contain  at  least  two 
propositions,  one  of  which  is  principal,  and  one  or  more  sub- 
ordinate. 

Ex. — When  the  wind  blows,  the  trees  bend.  As  they  advanced,  they 
heard  the  sound  of  music.  You  speak  like  one  who  has  never  felt  the 
pangs  of  separation. 

(3.)  Compound  sentences,  or  those  which  contain  at  least  two 
principal  propositions. 

Ex. — The  wind  blows,  and  the  trees  bend.  His  wish  still  continued, 
but  his  hope  grew  less. 

2.  A  proposition  is  the  combination  of  a  subject  and  a 
predicate.     (See  147,  4,  5,  and  Rem.) 

Ex. — Trees — grow.     The  moon — is  bright.     The  hour — has  arrived. 

3.  A  proposition  is — 

(1.)  A  sentence  (l47,  2),  when,  independently  and  alone,  it  ex- 
presses a  thought  of  the  speaker. 

Ex. — The  mists  of  the  morn  have  passed  away.  Coming  events  cast 
their  shadows  before. 

(2.)  An  element  of  a  sentence,  when  it  expresses  a  mere  idea 
(l47,  10,  Rem.)  or  part  of  a  thought. 

15 


170  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Ex. — I  know  thai  my  Redeemer  liveth.  The  things  thai  are  before  us 
require  attention.  Though  I  cannot  teach  courage,  I  must  not  learn 
cowardice. 

Observe  that  a  sentence  is  always  a  proposition,  either  alone  or  combined 
with  another,  but  a  proposition  is  not  always  a  sentence.  In  complex  sen- 
tences, at  least  one  proposition  is  used  to  express  merely  an  idea.  In  com- 
pound sentences,  at  least  two  propositions  are  used  to  express  thoughts. 

4.  A  proposition  used  as  a  sentence  is  a  simple  sentence,  however 
much  it  may  be  extended  to  express  a  definite  thought.     (147,  7.) 

But  a  proposition  used  as  an  element,  like  all  other  elements  (156),  is 
aimjile  only  as  it  expresses  the  most  general  idea  without  limitations. 

Ex. — To  the  skeptic — all — the — events — of  all  the  ages  of  the  world 
— are — but  a — crowd — of  useless  and  indigested  materials. — BucJcmin- 
ster.  I  suspected  that  sleep  had  robbed  (simple) — me — of  some  part 
of  my  powers  {complex  element). 

5.  Among  united  propositions,  that  one  is — 

(1.)  The  principal  proposition,  which  contains  the  principal  or 
leading  assertion ;  and  is  that  on  which  the  subordinate  depends. 
Ex. — When  spring  comes,  the  flowers  will  bloom. 

The  snbordinate  proposition,  which,  by  means  of  a  connective, 
depends  upon  some  part  of  the  principal. 

Ex. —  When  spring  comes,  the  flowers  will  bloom. 

6.  United  propositions  are  called  clauses. 

A  sentence  containing  but  one  proposition  (150,  1)  cannot  be  said  to  have 
clauses.  A  clause  is  always  a  proposition ;  but  a  proposition  is  not  always 
a  clause. 

7.  Two  united  propositions  are — 

Similar  principal  propositions,  when  both  express  kindred 
thoughts  of  the  speaker ;  or 

Similar  subordinate  propositions,  when  they  express  elements  of 
the  thought  kindred  in  construction  (i53,  3). 

Ex. — Talent  is  power,  [but]  tact  is  skill.  I  cannot  tell  when  he  camcy 
nor  when  he  went. 

Dissimilar  propositions,  when  one  expresses  a  thought  of  the 
speaker,  and  the  other  a  mere  element  of  the  thought,  or  when  any 
two  express  elements  of  the  thought  unlike  in  their  construction 
or  relations. 

Ex. — He  who  assumes  the  guidance  of  others,  should  govern  himself. 


SYNTAX — EXERCISE.  171 

If  we  take  no  account  of  our  sins  on  tlie  day — on  which  they  are 
committed — can  we  hope — that  they  will  recur  to  us  at  a  more  dis- 
tant period, — that  we  shall  watch  against  them  to-morrow,— or  that 
we  shall  g-ain  the  strength  to  resist  them,  which  we  will  not  implore  ? — 
Channing. 

Observe  in  this  complex  sentence  that  the  principal  clause,  "  Can  we  hope," 
is  not  similar  to  any  of  the  others;  that  the  subordinate  clauses  marked  by 
the  bold  type  are  alike  dependent  upon  "  hope,"  and  are  similar  to  each  other; 
that  any  one  of  these,  compared  with  any  of  the  other  subordinate  clauses, 
has  a  different  construction. 

Kemark. — These  distinctions  lay  the  foundation  for  the  division  of  sen- 
tences into  simiyle,  complex,  and  compotind  (1,  (1),  (2),  (3),  above).  A  simple 
sentence  has  but  one  proposition ;  a  co7>i2^lex,  two  or  more  dissimilar  propo- 
sitions ;  and  a  comjwiind,  two  or  more  similar  propositions.  It  should  be  borne 
in  mind  that  two  or  more  mere  subordinate  propositions,  whether  similar  or  dis- 
similar, can  never  form  a  sentence. 

8.  Entire  sentences,  by  some  affinity  in  the  thoughts 
expressed,  are  united  into  paragraphs  either  by  con- 
junctions  or  by  simple  succession. 

Ex. — Her  (Athens's)  power  is,  indeed,  manifested  at  the  bar,  in  the 
senate,  in  the  field  of  battle,  in  the  school  of  philosophy.  But  these  are 
not  her  glory. 

As  an  example  of  succession,  observe  the  paragraph  from  Patrick  Henry, 
below. 

151.  Exercise. 

Point  out  the  declarative,  the  interrogative,  the  imperative,  and  the 
exclamatory  sentences  in  the  following  examples.  Construct  or  select 
others  like  them.  Change  any  of  them  from  one  class  of  sentence  to 
another;  that  is,  turn  the  declarative  into  interrogative,  or  the  interro- 
gative into  declarative. 

Note. — The  learner  should  first  read  the  sentence  attentively,  and  then 
consider  whether,  as  a  whole,  it  declares  something,  asks  a  question,  expresses 
a  command,  or  utters  an  exclamation. 

Thou  shalt  not  take  the  name  of  the  Lord  thy  God  in  vain. 
Though  he  slay  me,  yet  will  I  trust  him.  What  think  ye  of  Christ? 
Whose  son  is  he  ?  Would  God  I  had  died  for  thee,  O  Absalom ! 
my  son !  my  son !  Is  this  a  dagger  that  I  see  before  me  ?  The  way 
was  long,  the  wind  was  cold.  Strike!  till  the  last  armed  foe 
expires  I 


172  ENGLISH   GEAMMAR. 

Great  Hierarch  i  tell  thou  the  silent  sky, 

And  tell  the  stars,  and  tell  the  rising  sun. 

Earth,  with  her  thousand  voices,  praises  God. — Coleridge. 

They  tell  us,  sir,  that  we  are  weak, — ^unable  to  cope  with  so 
formidable  an  adversary.  But  when  shall  we  be  stronger  ?  Will  it 
be  the  next  week,  or  the  next  year  ?  Shall  we  gather  strength  by 
irresolution  and  inaction  ?  Sir,  we  are  not  weak,  if  we  make  a 
proper  use  of  those  means  which  the  God  of  nature  hath  placed  in 
our  power.  The  battle,  sir,  is  not  to  the  strong  alone :  it  is  to  the 
vigilant,  the  active,  the  brave.  If  we  were  base  enough  to  desireit^' 
;4t  is  now  too  late  to  retire  from  the  contest.  The  war  is  inevitable, 
— and\let  it  com^  Oiir  brethren  are  already  in  the  field.  Why 
stand  we'il'ere  idle  ?  Is  life  so  dear,  or  peace  so  sweet,  as  to  be  pur- 
chased at  the  price  of  chains  and  slavery?  Forbid  it.  Almighty 
God!  1  know  not  what  course  others  may  take;  but  as  for  me, 
give  me  liberty,  or  give  me  death ! — Patrick  Henrm 

Tell  luhich  of  the  foregoing  or  of  the  following  sentences  are  simple, 
which  are  COMPLEX,  and  which  are  compound.  Bi  the  foregoing 
paragraph,  tell  what  sentences  are  connected  hy  cONJUisrcTloiS'S,  and 
%vhat  by  simple  succession.     What  relation  of  thought  can  you  see  f 

In  the  production  of  order,  all  men  recognize  something  sacred. 
Decide  not  by  authoritative  rules,  when  they  are^inconsistent  with  . 
reason.  Though  he  were  as  rich  as  Croesus,  still  ^ould  man  be  dis- 
satisfied hvith  his  condition.  Pope  had  perhaps  the  judgment  of 
Dry  den,  but  Dry  den  certainly  wanted  the  diligence  of  Pope.  The 
emperor  Augustus  was  a  patron  of  the  fine  arts.  Good  and  evil 
are  inseparable  companions ;  but  the  latter  often  hides  behind  the 
back  of  the  former.  fTell  me  when  it  was  that  you  felt  yourself 
most  strongly  inclined  to  go  astra^ 


SYNTAX  OF  ELEMENTS. 
152.  Definition  and  Diyision. 

1.  The  elements  of  a  sentence  are  its  component  parts, 
each  standing  for  an  idea  and  its  relation  to  some  other  idea. 

Ex.— The  shepherd— gave— the  alarm— when  he  discovered  the  ap- 
proach of  the  wolf. 

Here  we  have  the  person,  the  act/ion,  the  object,  and  the  time, — feur  distinct 
oleipeHts  (147,  9). 


SYNTAX — ELEMENTS.  173 

2  Every  element,  considered — 

(1.)  As  a  whole,  i^  principal  or  subordinate, — substantive,  adjective^ 
or  adverbial. 

The  first  two  distinctions  refer  to  the  ranh  of  the  united  elements ; 
the  last  three,  to  their  grammatical  value  as  parts  of  speech.  This 
use  of  an  expression  as  a  whole  for  any  grammatical  purpose  re- 
sembles that  of  the  parenthesis  in  algebra. 

(2.)  As  to  its  component  parts,  is  a  word,  2i  phrase,  or  a  clause^ 
• — simple,  complex,  or  compound. 

The  first  three  have  reference  to  the/or?7i  of  the  element ;  the  last 
three,  to  its  relation  to,  or  union  with,  other  elements. 


153.  Principal,  Subordinate,  and  Independent  Elements. 

1.  The  principal  elements  are  the  essential  parts  of  the 
sentence, — namely,  the  subject  and  the  predicate  (l47,  4,  5). 

Ex. — The — seasons  of  the  year — bring- — each  its  peculiar  pleasures. 

2.  The  subordinate  elements  are  those  which  depend 
upon  and  modify  the  principal.  They  are  the  adjective^ 
the  objective,  and  the  adverbial  element. 

Ex. — Coming — events — cast — their  shadows — before. 

The  subject  and  the  predicate  are  of  the  first  rank ;  elements  depending  on 
them  are  of  the  second;  while  elements  depending  upon  these  are  of  the  third' 
and  so  on.  It  is  best,  however,  to  consider  a  sentence  as  having  only  five  ele 
ments, — two  principal,  the  subject  and  the  predicate,  and  three  subordinate, 
the  adjective,  the  objective,  and  the  adverbial.  All  elements  below  the  second 
rank  are  to  be  regarded  as  parts  of  a  complex  element  of  the  sentence. 

3.  Two  principal  or  two  subordinate  elements  are  coordinate 
when  they  have  a  similar  construction. 

Ex. — Peter  and  John  went  up  to  the  temple.  We  were  employed 
early  and  late.    He  could  not  tell  where  he  was  or  lohat  he  had  done. 

Observe  that  Peter  and  John  have  a  similar  construction ;  so,  also,  early 
and  lat^,  and  v^here  he  teas  and  what  he  had  done.  Two  elements  may  hav6 
the  same  rank  (coordinate),  but  not  a  similar  construction.  Thus,  "  The 
boy  studies — 'grammar — diligently."  Here  grammar  and  diligently  are  of  the 
same  order  of  dependence, — that  is,  they  are  both  of  the  second  rank, — yet  they 
are  not  coordinate,  because  they  have  dissimilar  constructions.  For  the  same 
reason,  the  subject  and  the  predicate  are  not  coordinate,  though  both  are 
principal  elements. 

15* 


174  ENGLISH   GEAMMAK. 

4.  Of  two  united  elements  differing  in  rank,  the  principal  governs, 
and  the  subordinate  limits. 

Ex. — Now  launch  the  boat  upon  the  wave. 

Here  launch  is  principal,  and  governs  hoat;  while  boat  is  subordinate,  and 
limits  launch. 

Remark  1. — The  government  of  the  principal  element  is  of  two  kinds.  It 
may  cause  the  subordinate  element  to  agree  with  itself,  in  which  case  it  is 
called  concord, — or  it  may  cause  it  to  take  some  particular  case,  mode,  or 
tense,  in  which  case  it  is  called  government;  as,  "These  (not  this)  books;" 
"He  walks"  (not  walk);  "I  am  he"  (not  him).  The  government  may  be 
eflFected  -directly ;  as,  "  Solomon's  temple ;"  *'  We  saw  him ;"  or  indirectly,  by 
means  of  a  connective;  as,  "The  temple  of  Solomon;"  "We  looked  at  him." 

Remark  2. — The  subordinate  element  limits  the  principal  by  restricting  or 
extending  its  application.     (See  147,  7.) 

Remark  3. — Coordinate  elements  neither  govern  nor  modify  each  other. 

5.  Coordinate  elements  are  connected  by  coordinate  conjunctions 

(143,  3). 

Ex. — Youth  is  bright  and  lovely.  Then  build  anew,  or  act  it  on  a 
plain. 

6.  A  subordinate  element  is  joined  to  its  principal  by  a  subordi- 
nate connective  (i43, 12). 

Ex. — Shall  I  be  frighted,  when  a  madman  stares  ? 

Remark. — The  preposition  is  a  subordinate  connective,  and  is  used  to  con- 
nect a  subordinate  to  a  principal  element;  as,  "A  man  of  tcisdom;"  "0 
Cassius,  you  are  yoked  with  a  lamb."  When  the  subordinate  element  is  a 
single  word,  no  connective  is  used ;  as,  "  A  tcise  son  maketh  a  glad  father." 

7.  An  independent  element  is  one  which  stands  in  no  gram- 
matical relation  to  the  parts  of  the  sentence. 

Ex. — You  wrong  me,  Brutus.  Why,  man,  he  doth  bestride  the  narrow 
world  like  a  Colossus. 

Remark. — The  independent  element  may  be  the  nominative  independent, 
the  interjection,  or  an  adverb  used  independently. 


154.  Substantiye,  Adjective,  and  Adverbial  Elements. 

1.  An  element  in  any  of  its  forms  is  substantive,  adjective, 
or  adverbial,  when,  as  a  whole,  it  has  the  construction  and 
use  of  the  part  of  speech  for  which  it  is  named. 

Ex. — Substantive. — Birds  devour  insects.     To  live  happily  requires 


SYNTAX — ELEMENTS.  175 

obedience  to  all  the  laws  of  our  being.  That  the  mind  is  under  any  necessity 
to  adopt  this  or  that  mode  of  action  is  denied. 

Adjective.— The  best  books  were  selected.  Wisdom^ s  ways  are  ways 
of  pleasantness.     The  lesson  which  was  assigned  was  too  long. 

Adverbial. — The  wind  blew  briskly.  The  voice  of  the  Lord  was 
heard  in  the  garden.     Who  shall  decide  when  doctors  disagreed 

Kejiark. — These  three  kinds  of  elements  enter  in  to  form  the  principal 
and  the  subordinate  parts  of  the  sentence. 

2.  The  subject  (147,  4)  is  always  substantive :  it  is  either  a  word 
or  a  group  of  words  answering  the  question  Who  f  or  What  f 

Ex. — Bees  buzz.  He  rides.  To  be  contents  his  natural  desire.  Who 
invented  letters  is  not  certainly  known. 

3.  The  predicate,  in  its  attribute,  may  be  either  substantive  or 
adjective,  and  is  a  word  or  a  group  of  words  answering  the  question 
What  is  said? 

Ex. — The  day  dawns.  The  affair  is  to  be  investigated.  The  only 
objection  to  the  credibility  of  miracles  is,  that  they  are  contrary  to  general 
experience. — Buckminster. 

Observe  that  the  predicate  stands,  in  every  case,  as  answer  to  the  question 
What  ia  said?  of  the  subject.  As  the  predicate  contains  the  copula  and  the 
attribute,  the  latter  only  can  become  a  group  of  words. 

4.  The  adjective  element  may  be  either  substantive  or  adjective, 
and  is  a  word  or  a  group  of  words  added  to  the  subject  (or  to  the 
noun  or  the  pronoun  in  any  relation)  to  show  what  kind,  what  one, 
how  many,  whose. 

Ex. —  White  clouds  are  seen  in  the  west.  These  hands  have  ministered 
to  my  necessities.  Peter  the  hermit.  The  proposition  that  the  whole  is 
equal  to  all  its  parts  is  a  self-evident  truth.     Wisdom^ s  ways  are  ways  of 


5.  The  objective  element  is  substantive,  and  is  a  word  or  a  group 
of  words  added  usually  to  a  verb,  answering  the  question  What? 
Whom  f  To,  for,  or  of  what  or  whom  f 

Ex. — The  boy  opened  the  door.  He  gave  me  a  book.  I  perceived 
that  I  lost  the  sense  of  song. 

Remark. — The  direct  object  answers  the  question  What?  or  Whom?  The 
indirect  answers  the  question  To,  for,  or  of  ^o hat  or  whom?  The  attrihutive 
answers  the  question  What?  In  lohat  state?  or  To  do  v)hat?  as,  "They  made 
the  man — a  servant — idle, — wnrk."  The  double  or  combined  object  consists 
usually  of  the  direct  and  the  attributive. 


176  ENGLISH  GEAMMAE. 

6.  The  adverbial  element  is  any  word  or  group  of  words  (132,  2) 
added  to  a  verb,  a  participle,  an  adjective,  or  an  adverb,  answering 
the  question  When  f  Where  f   Why  f  How  f  How  7nuch  f  &c. 

Ex. — We  approached  very  slowly.  They  came  in  the  spring.  They 
stopped  when  the  night  overtook  them. 


155.  Forms  of  the  Elements— Words— Phrases— Clauses. 

1.  A  single  word,  expressing  an  idea  without  a  con- 
nective (153,  6,  Rem.),  is  an  element  of  the^rs^  class, 

Ex. — Constant — boasting — always — betrays — incapacity. 

Remark. — "When  such  a  word  depends  upon  one  of  the  subordinate  ele- 
ments, it  is  of  the  third  rank,  and,  though  an  element  of  the  first  class,  it  is 
an  element  of  an  element, — that  is,  forms  part  of  a  complex  element ;  as,  *'  We 
hoped  to  find  employment." 

2.  A  phrase,  having  one  word  to  represent  an  idea, 
and  another  to  show  its  relation,  is  an  element  of  the 
second  class, 

Ex. — A  statue  of  marble — was  chiselled — by  the  artist. 

Remark  1. — Any  j?roup  of  words  not  containing  an  assertion  is  a  phrase; 
as, "  very  earnestly ;"  "  qu>i*  favorably  ,•"  but  here  each  word  expresses  an  idea. 
A  phrase,  as  used  in  the  analysis  of  sentences,  is  restricted  to  a  group  of 
words  having  one  word  to  show  a  relation,  and  another,  either  alone  or  modi- 
fied, to  express  an  idea;  as,  "a«  dawn;"  "at  early  dawn." 

Remark  2. — When  a  phrase  depends  upon  one  of  the  subordinate  elements, 
it  is  still  an  element  of  the  second  class,  but  not  a  sentence-element  (153,  2); 
as,  "A  popular  poet  had  the  post  0/  honor." 

All  phrases,  as  a  whole,  are  either  substantive,  adjective,  or  adver^ 
bial  (153,  2). 

Every  simple  phrase  should  be  separated  into  its  two  parts;  and  every 
complex  or  compound  phrase,  into  its  simple  elements.  For  a  full  discussion 
of  Phrases,  see  Analysis,  Chap.  11. 

3.  A  Clause,  having  a  proposition  to  represent  an  idea, 
and  some  word  to  show  its  relation,  is  an  element  of  the 
third  class, 

Ex. — Satan,  whom  now  transcendent  glory  raised  above  his  fellows,  spake. 

Observe  that  a  clause,  like  a  phrase,  is  always  a  group  of  words ;  but,  un- 
like a  phras>e,  it  always  contains  a  proposition. 


SYNTAX — ELEMENTS.  177 

A  word,  a  phrase,  or  a  clause,  is  a  sentence-element  only  when  it  is  used 
as  the  subject,  the  predicate,  or  the  part  directly  dependent  upon  one  of  these ; 
otherwise,  it  is  but  an  element  of  an  element. 


156.  Simple,  Complex,  and  Compound  Elements. 

1.  A  simple  element  is  a  word,  a  phrase,  or  a  clause^ 
without  addition  or  modification. 

Ex. — An  honest  man  ;  a  man  of  honesty;  a  man  who  is  honest. 

2.  The  simple  subject  is  called  the  grammatical  subject 
the  simple  predicate,  the  grammatical  predicate. 

The  same  distinction  might  be  made  in  the  other  elements.  Thus, 
we  have  the  simple  or  grammatical  adjective,  objective,  or  adverbial 
element. 

3.  A  complex  or  logical  element  is  an  expression  con- 
taining a  simple  or  a  grammatical  element  with  all  its 
modifications. 

4.  In  this  case,  the  grammatical  or  leading  element  is  called  the 
principal  element,  or  basis,  and  gives  its  own  name  and  properties  to 
the  whole  group. 

Thus,  in  the  sentence,  "They  improved  the  opportunities  which  they 
enjoyed,"  the  objective  element  is  "the  opportunities  which  they  enjoyed;" 
opportunities  is  the  basis,  limited  by  the  adjective  clause  "which  they 
enjoyed." 

Remark. — In  complex  elements,  the  simple  parts  unite  subordinately  (153, 
4).  An  element  may  be  subordinate  to  one  and  principal  io  another;  as, 
"They  discovered  huge  masses  of  ice."  Here  "masses"  is  suhordinate  to 
"  discovered,"  and  principal  to  the  phrase  "  of  ice." 

5.  A  compound  element  consists  of  two  or  more  simple 
or  complex  elements  joined  together  coordinately. 

Ex. — Exercise  and  temperance  strengthen  the  constitution. 


157.  Exercise. 

1.  Separate  the  folloioing  sentences  into  their  ELEMENTS  (l55,  1,  2, 
3),  so  as  to   represent  the  prominent  1DF,AS, : — 

The  trees  are  leafless.     A  life  of  prayer  is  a  life  of  heaven.    The 
Swiss  love  liberty.     Ho  was  not  clad  in  costly  raiment.     Henry 
M 


178  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

begged  that  they  would  come  to  his  assistance.  His  parents 
mourned  his  untimely  death.  He  labored  diligently  to  complete 
the  work.  The  quality  of  mercy  is  not  strained.  Simon,  son  of 
Jonas,  lovest  thou  me?  He  jests  at  scars  that  never  felt  a  wound. 
How  sweet  the  moonlight  sleeps  upon  this  bank !  Let  me  stand 
here  till  thou  remember  it.  Peace,  tranquillity,  and  innocence,  shed 
their  mingled  delights  around  him.  Approach  and  behold,  while  I 
lift  from  his  sepulchre  its  covering. 

2.  Tell  which  are  principal,  and  which  subordinate. 

3.  Point  Old  the  subjects,  predicates,  adjective,  objective, 
and  adverbial  elements. 

4.  Tell  which  are  substantive,  which  adjective,  and  which 
adverbial. 

5.  Tell  which  are  simple,  which  complex,  and  tohich  compound. 

6.  Tell  which  are  words,  which  phrases,  and  which  clauses. 

7.  Separate  the  following  sentences  into  their  elements  (i54),  and 
tell  the  RANK  of  each. 

Soft  stillness  and  the  night  become  the  touches  of  sweet  harmony. 

The  man  that  hath  not  music  in  himself. 

Nor  is  not  moved  with  concord  of  sweet  sounds, 

Is  fit  for  treasons,  stratagems,  and  spoils. 

Now  the  bright  morning  star,  day's  ^harbinger,  comes  dancing 
from  the  east^ 

All  the  triumphs  of  truth  and  genius  over  prejudice  and  power, 
in  every  country  and  in  every  age,  have  been  the  triumphs  of 
Athens. 

/The  way  was  long — the  wind  was  cold, 
The  minstrel  was  infirm  and  old.^ 

8.  Separate  the  following  sentences  into  their  elements,  and  describe 
each  element  in  full. 

Regard  the  rights  of  property.  Columbus  died  in  ignorance  of 
the  real  grandeur  of  his  discovery.  On  Prague's  proud  arch  the 
fires  of  ruin  glow.  The  credulity  which  has  faith  in  goodness  is  a 
sign  of  goodness.  The  noble  Brutus  hath  told  you  Caesar  was 
ambitious.  We  stand  the  latest,  and,  if  we  fail,  probably  the  last, 
experiment  of  self-government  by  the  people,  ^e  have  begun  it 
under  circumstances  of  the  most  auspicious  nature)  We  are  in 
ihe  vigor  of  youth,  j'  Our  growth  has  never  been  cnecked^by  the 


SYNTAX — ELEMENTS.  179 

oppressions  of  tyranny.    The  Atlantic  rolls  between  us  and  any 
formidable  foe. 

Locbiel,  Lochiel,  beware  of  the  day 

When  the  Lowlands  shall  meet  thee  in  battle  array. 


ELEMENTS  COMBINED.— CONSTRUCTION 
AND  ANALYSIS. 

I.  SIMPLE  SENTENCES.— SINGLE  WOKDS. 

158.  Elements  joined  without  a  Connective. 

1.  The  simplest  possible  sentence  contains  only  two 
elements, — a  subject  and  a  predicate. 

Model  1.— Time  flies.  Here,  time  and  fly  combine  to  form  the 
simple  declarative  sentence  (l49,  1)  Time  flies,  of  which — 

Time. is  the  simple  subject;  it  represents  that  of  which  something 

is  affirmed,  and 
Flies .  is  the  simple  predicate ;  it  represents  what  is  affirmed. 

Time  is  to  be  parsed  as  in  (54) ;  flies,  as  in  (131,  1).  Let  the  following 
examples  be  analyzed  in  a  similar  manner.  Let  the  pupil  mark  the  changes 
in  the  words  (fly=/je«)  as  they  enter  into  combination,  and  the  changes  in 
the  classification  of  the  sentences. 

Ex. — Eoses  fade.  Children  play.  I  laugh.  You  read.  She  writes. 
They  run.     He  sings.     We  ride.     Jesus  wept.     God  reigns. 

Who  came?  What  comes?  Which  fails?  Understandest  thou? 
Know  ye  ? 

Come  [thou  or  you].  Learn.  Study.  Go.  Wait.  They  come! 
Hasten !     Arise ! 

2.  The  complex  or  logieal  subject  is  formed  by  join- 
ing to  the  simple  subject — 

(1.)  A  singrie  word,  as  an  adjective  element. 

Model  2.— These  men  came.  Here  this,  man^  and  come  unite  and 
form  a  declarative  sentence,  of  which — 

Men is  the  simple  subject  (why?). 

Came is  the  simple  predicate  (why?). 


180  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Tbese is  the  simple  adjective  element ;  it  is  a  word  joined  to 

the  subject  to  limit  its  application  (i47, 7).    Parse  it  by 
(67,  6.) 
These  men  is  the  complex  subject;  it  is  the  simple  subject  with  its 
modifications  (i56,  3). 
Ex. — Five  dogs  barked.     What  trees  fell  ?     The  ink  fades.    A  cat 
plays.     Which  boys  study  ?     Every  star  shines. 

Old  trees  decay.  Wise  men  err.  Hot  water  scalds.  Good  scholars 
learn.  Cold  winter  comes.  Queen  Mary  reigned.  General  Scott 
conquered.     Prince  Eugene  commanded. 

Mary's  mother  wept.  Wellington's  renown  increased.  William's 
invention  failed.     Our  door  creaks.     His  term  ends. 

(2.)  By  joining  two  or  more  words  directly  to  the  subject. 

In  this  case,  one  word  usually  modifies  the  subject,  as  limited  by  the  other; 
as,  two  old  men. 

Model  3.— What  two  travellers  returned?  This  is  an  interrogative 
sentence;  it  is  used  to  ask  a  question.  Travellers  is  the  simple 
subject,  and  returned  is  the  simple  predicate.  Travellers  is  limited 
by  two,  which  shows  how  many  are  considered  together  (parse  two 
by  67,  5) ;  it  is  further  limited  by  what,  which  asks  for  some  par- 
ticular two  travellers.  What  two  travellers  is  the  complex  subject. 
Parse  what  as  in  (79). 

Ex.— The  first  dawn  appeared.  The  second  class  recites.  The  twelve 
Caesars  reigned.     Many  a  gem  sparkles. 

Every  new  lesson  varies.  Any  good  book  instructs.  Several  old 
houses  fell.  Which  smooth  button  shines?  Those  two  young  men 
agree.  Many  a  serious  struggle  arose.  Those  bright,  cheerful  days 
return. 

The  apostle  Paul  (54, 1)  labored.  The  martyr  Stephen  died.  Jacob's 
(54,  2)  eldest  son  Reuben  returned. 

(3.)  By  forming  a  complex  adjective  element,  and  joining  it  to 
the  subject. 

Model  4 Very  strange  reports  arose.     A  simple  sentence, — it 

contains  but  one  proposition;   declarative, — it  is  used  to  declare 
something  as  a  fact. 

Reports is  the  simple  subject  (why?). 

Arose is  the  simple  predicate  (why?).    The  subject 

is  limited  by 
Very  strange a  complex  adjective  element  of  the  first  class, 

used  to  show  what  kind  of  reports  arose. 


SYNTAX — ELEMENTS.  181 

(^itrange is  the  basis,  or  leading  element  (l56,  4),  and  is 

itself  an  element  of  the  first  class  (parse  it 
as  in  67,  2) ;  it  is  limited  by 

Tery a  simple  adverbial  element  of  the  first  class, 

used  to  express  intensity. 
Very  strange  reports  is  the  complex  subject. 

Ex. — A  truly  great  man  appeared.  Too  many  competitors  entered. 
Exceedingly  heavy  rains  fell. 

The  old  man's  daughter  left.  The  bright  sun's  rays  illumine.  The 
shepherd's  dog  barked. 

Arnold,  the  base  traitor,  escaped.  Elizabetli,  Henry's  daughter, 
delayed.    Peter,  Christ's  bold  disciple,  denied. 

3.  The  compies:  or  logical  predicate  is  formed  by  joining  to  the 
simple  predicate — 

(1.)  A  single  word  as  an  objective  element. 

Model  5. — The  boy  gathered  nuts.  A  simple  declarative  sentence, 
of  which  boy  is  the  simple,  and  the  boy  the  complex  subject; 
gathered  is  the  simple,  and  gathered  nuts  the  complex  predicate. 
Gathered  is  limited  by  nuts, — a  simple  objective  element  of  the 
first  class,  used  to  show  what  the  boy  gathered.  Parse  boy  as  in 
(54,  2,  history.) 

Ex. — Csesar  conquered  Gaul.  Attila  invaded  Eome.  Whom  seest 
thou  ?    What  have  you  ?     Which  has  he  ?     We  write  sentences. 

(2.)  A  single  word  as  an  adverbial  element. 

Model  6. — The  bells  ring  merrily.  A  simple  declarative  sentence, 
having  bells  for  the  simple  subject,  the  bells  for  the  complex  sub- 
ject ;  having  also  ring  for  the  simple  predicate,  p^nd  riwgr  merrily 
for  the  complex  predicate.  Bells  ring  expresses  the  indefinite 
thought;  the  bells  ring  merrily,  the  definite  thought.  Ring  is 
limited  by  merrily,  a  simple  adverbial  element  of  the  first  class, 
showing  how  the  bells  ring.     Parse  merrily  as  in  (iss,  2.) 

Ex. — The  shadow  moves  onward.  Where  standest  thou?  Who 
came  here  ?  Go  forward.  Come  hither.  The  coach  arrived  yesterday. 
He  changes  often.  They  ride  occasionally.  Why  came  ye?  The 
campaign  opened  vigorously.     The  curtains  hang  gracefully. 

(3.)  By  joining  two  or  more  words  directly  to  the  predicate. 

As  a  model,  combine  Models  5  and  6. 

Ex. — Give  me  flowers.  They  lent  him  money.  I  wrote  liim  letters. 
The  teacher  appointed  Charles  monitor.  They  called  him  traitor, 
Jesus  made  the  water  wine. 

16 


182  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

They  raise  oranges  there.  Study  the  lesson  faithfully.  The  master 
taught  him  thoroughly.  He  never  found  it.  He  utters  the  syllables 
distinctly. 

In  the  case  of  combined  objects,  as  in,  *'  They  elected  him  commander,"  each 
is  joined  to  the  predicate,  while  at  the  same  time  they  are  joined  together. 
Analyze  thus: — The  predicate  elected  is  limited  by  the  double  object  him 
commander,  which  is  used  to  complete  its  meaning,  the  direct  object  him 
answering  the  question  Wliom?  and  the  attributive  answering  the  question 
What?  They  elected  {ichom?)  They  elected  him  {what?)  The  attributive 
object  is  called  by  many  i\i.Q  factitive  object, — that  into  which  the  direct  object 
is  made. 

(4.)  By  first  forming  a  complex  objective  or  a  complex  ad- 
verbial element. 

Model  7. — The  tropical  islands  yield  deUcions  spices.     This  is  a 
simple  declarative  sentence,  of  which 
Islands .  is  the  simple  subject,  and 

Yield  .  .  is  the  simple  predicate.     Islands  yield  expresses  the  indefi- 
nite or  unlimited  thought.     Islands  is  limited  by  tbe  and 
tropical,  two  simple  adjective  elements  of  the  first  class. 
The  tropical  islands  is  the  complex  or  definite  subject.      Yield 
is  limited  by  delicious  spices, — a  complex  objective  element 
of  the  first  class,   of  which   spices  is  the  basis,   and  is 
limited  by  delicious,  a  simple  adjective  element  of  the  first 
class. 
Ex. — The  monk  led  a  desolate  life.    The  merchant  gained  a  hand- 
some profit.     He  recognized  his  mother's  voice.     He  kept  his  word. 
Herod  beheaded  John  the  Baptist.     She  plays  very  skilfully.     Bead 
Shakspeare  very  attentively.     The  general  managed  his  troops  most 
adroitly. 

4.  A  sentence  may  have  connected  with  it  an  independent  ele- 
ment. 

Model  8.— Plato,  thou  reasoiiest  well.  A  simple  declarative  sen- 
tence (why?). 

Plato  is  the  independent  element, — the  compellative '.  it  represents 
the  person  to  whom  the  words  are  addressed,  and  forms  no 
part  of  the  sentence  thou  reasonest  well.    Parse  it  as  in  (54, 2.) 

Remark. — The  subject  and  the  predicate  may  both  become  complex  in  any 
of  the  foregoing  ways.  Let  it  be  observed  that  no  sentence  in  all  the  pre- 
ceding examples,  though  it  contains  any  or  all  of  the  five  elements,  has  a 
connective  of  any  kind.  The  pupil  should  carefully  apply  the  models  in  the 
following  exercise. 


SYNTAX — SIMPLE   SENTENCES.  183 


159.  Exercise. 

The  lightning  glares.  This  old  mountain  still  stands.  Speak 
the  truth.  God  gives  every  bird  its  food.  A  wise  man  sometimes 
changes  his  mind.  Bushed  the  bold  eagle  exultingly  forth.  The 
refreshing  showers  soon  revived  the  drooping  plants.  The  dis- 
tinguished  historian  Xenophon  skilfully  conducted  the  dangerous 
retreat.  Leonidas,  the  brave  Spartan  hero,  gallantly  defended  the 
narrow  pass. 

The  soft  hautboy's  melting  trill 
Confessed  the  magic  master's  skill. 


II.  SIMPLE  SENTENCES.— PHEASES. 

160.  Elements  joined  hj  some  Auxiliary  or  by  a  Prepo- 
sition. 

1.  A  phrase  (155,  2)  is, — 

(1.)  Inseparable;  as,  to  read,  to  walk,  to  have  learned;  or,-— 
(2.)  Separable;  as,  in  town,  is  base,  over  mountains. 

Here,  in  parsing  to  read,  to  xoalk,  &c.,  we  call  the  whole  expression  a  verb, 
— the  infinitive.  But  in  parsing  in  toton,  is  base,  &c.,  we  must  separate  each  into 
two  parts, — preposition  and  object,  cojmla  and  attribute.  But  in  such  phrases 
as  may  be  done,  we  should  parse  the  phrase  as  a  whole,  yet  should  distinguish 
between  the  auxiliarij  as  the  relation-word,  and  ih.Q principal  verb  as  the  irfea- 
tcord. 

2.  The  parts  of  a  separable  phrase  are, — 

(1.)  The  connective,  expressing  a  relation, — namely,  the  copula, 
the  auxiliary,  or  the  preposition. 

(2.)  The  word  expressing^  an  idea, — namely,  the  attribute,  de- 
noting the  cla^s,  quality,  action,  or  condition  of  the  subject;  the 
principal  verb,  denoting  the  state  (98,  3)  of  the  act  or  the  event  (98, 
113, 114,  lis) ;  or  the  object,  denoting  the  person  or  the  thing  named. 

Kemark. — Here  the  learner  finds  the  first  kind  of  connectives  not  improperly 
called  term-connectives,  inasmuch  as  they  join,  not  propositions,  but  usually  a 
subordinate  to  a  principal  term. 

3.  The  subject  or  tlie  predicate  may  be  a  pbrase,  or 

an  element  of  the  second  class. 

Model  9.— To  steal  is  base.  Here  the  two  phrases  to  steal  and  is 
base  unite  and  form  a  simple  declarative  sentence. 


184  ENGLISH   GEAMMAK. 

Observe,  here  we  cannot  say  that  steal  is  the  simple  subject,  modified  b> 
to,  but  both  must  unite  to  form  the  subject  in  its  simplest  state.  So  of  is 
base. 

^osteal  is  the  simple  subject  (why?);  an  element  of  the  second 
form  or  class,  because  it  has  one  word,  steal,  to  express  an 
idea,  and  another,  to,  to  represent  its  relation. 

Parse  to  steal  as  an  irregular  intransitive  verb,  present  tense, — used  as  a 
noun  in  the  nominative  case,  and  subject  of  the  proposition. 

is  base  .  is  the  simple  predicate  (why?);  it  is  of  the  second  class, 
having  the  attribute  ba^e  to  express  the  predicated  idea, 
and  is,  the  copula  (so,  5),  to  predicate  it  and  connect  it 
with  the  subject.    Parse  is  and  base. 

Remark. — The  subject  only  may  be  a  phrase, — the  predicate  only, — or  both 
together;  as.  To  forgive  ennobles.  Night  is  approaching.  To  betray  is 
infamous. 

Ex. — To  love  exalts.  The  ceremony  was  performed.  Silence  is 
impressive.     To  err  is  human.     To  forgive  is  divine. 

Her  desire  is  to  leave.  To  love  is  to  obey.  The  lady  is  in  grief. 
His  intention  is  to  return.     To  rob  is  to  plunder. 

4.  The  complex  subject  may  be  formed  by  joining  to 
the  simple  subject, — 

(1.)  A  simple  phrase  ?is>  an  adjective  element. 
Model  10.— FieMs  of  g-rain  were  waving.    Here  the  single  word 
fields,  and  the  two  phrases  of  grain  and  were  waving,  unite  and 
form  a  simple  declarative  sentence,  of  which 

Fields is  the  simple  subject  (why?) ;  an  element  of  the 

first  class. 
Were  waving  .  is  the  simple  predicate;  a  phrase  of  which  were 
is  the  copula  and  waving  is  the  attribute.  Fields, 
the  subject  is  limited  by  the  simple  adjective- 
phrase  of  grain;  of  is  the  connective,  and  grain  is 
the  object. 

Parse  of  by  (141,  2,)  and  grain  as  in  (54,  2,  last  model.) 

Ex. — Many  works  on  history  were  carefully  consulted.  Days  of 
fasting  were  often  appointed.     Bouquets  of  flowers  were  presented. 

(2.)  By  two  or  more  adjective  elements  of  the  first  or  the  second 
class,  each  joined  to  the  subject. 

Ex. — The  first  settlers  at  Plymouth  were  called  Puritans.  Huge 
waves  of  the  ocean  overwhelmed  the  ship.     The  dawn  of  light  appeared. 


SYNTAX — SIMPLE   SENTENCES.  185 

(3.)  By  a  comple:s:  phrase  as  an  adjective  element. 

Compare  Models  4  and  10. 

Ex. — An  army  confident  of  success  is  invincible.  Paul,  the  Apostle 
to  the  Gentiles,  was  imprisoned.  The  father  of  the  lost  prince  never 
smiled.  A  visit  from  a  friend  in  Boston  is  soon  expected.  A  jailer  of 
the  Dauphin  of  France  was  named  Simon. 

5.  The  complex  predicate  may  be  formed  by  joining 
to  the  simple  predicate, — 

(1.)  A  simple  phrase  as  an  objective  or  an  adverbial  element. 
For  models,  see  10  for  the /or???,  and  3  for  the  relation. 

Ex. — He  hopes  to  succeed.  I  am  trying  to  learn.  The  watch  needs 
to  be  repaired.  We  spoke  to  him.  They  gave  money  to  the  poor.  He 
failed  of  the  opportunity.  The  fruit  fell  from  the  tree.  The  express 
will  come  from  Boston.  In  the  morning  it  flourisheth.  Come  on  Mon- 
day.    Can  you  write  in  cipher  ?     The  Greeks  succeeded  by  stratagem. 

(2.)  By  tivo  or  more  elements  of  the  first  or  the  second  class, 
added  directly  to  the  simple  predicate. 
Compare  Models  10  and  6. 

Ex. — They  urged  me  to  go.  The  doves  besought  the  hawk  to  defend 
them.  I  heard  the  cannon  [to]  roar.  He  bade  me  tell  you.  They 
made  the  prisoner  stand  up.  My  cousin  gave  a  book  to  me.  The  dis- 
patch informed  me  of  my  brother's  arrival.  Throw  the  ball  to  me.  The 
teacher  promised  a  reward  to  the  best  scholar.  We  heard  their  songs  in 
the  grove.     Did  you  learn  to  sing  in  childhood  ? 

(3.)  By  two  or  more  elements  of  the  first  or  the  second  class, 
joined  together,  and  then  joined  to  the  predicate. 

See  Models  6  and  7. 

Ex. — We  found  large  masses  of  ice.  The  party  made  a  tent  of 
boughs.  The  general  gave  the  command  to  the  colonel  of  the  regiment. 
The  arrangement  was  made  for  the  child  of  my  brother.  The  savages 
came  from  their  hidden  retreats.  They  hope  to  reach  home  safely.  The 
air  was  filled  with  the  fragrance  of  the  flowers.  Moses  stood  on  the 
summit  of  Pisgah.     The  city  was  situated  at  the  head  of  the  bay. 

161.  Exercise, 

The  massy  trunks  are  cased  in  the  pure  crystal.  The  relation  of 
sleep  to  night  appears  to  have  been  expressly  intended  by  our 
benevolent  Creator.     In   every  period  of  life,  the  acquisition  of 

16* 


186  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

knowledge  is  one  of  the  most  pleasing  employments  of  the  human 
mind.  Hope,  the  charmer,  lingered  still  behind.  <Men  apt  to  pro- 
mise are  apt  to  forget)  This  hour's  work  will  breed  proscriptions, 
^^any  actions  apt  to  procure  fame  are  not  conducive  to  our  ultimate 
nappinesa  The  brilliant  flowers  of  the  tropics  bloom  from  the 
windows  of  the  green-house.  The  hermit  trimmed  his  little  lamp. 
His  troops  moved  to  victory  with  the  precision  of  machines.  A 
ship  incurs  guilt  by  the  violation  of  a  blockade.  ^  sea  of  blood 
gushed  from  the  gaping  wound^  ^h  that  those  lips  had  languag^! 


III.  COMPLEX  SENTENCES.— SUBOEDINATE  CLAUSES. 

162.  Elements  joined  hj  a  Subordinate  Conneetiye. 

1.  The  subject  may  be  a  substantive  clause,  or  an  ele- 
ment of  the  third  class. 

Model  11.— That  you  have  wronged  me,  doth  appear  in  this. 
Here  the  substantive  clause  that  you  have  ivronged  me,  the  phrases 
doth  appear,  and  in  this,  unite  and  form  a  complex  (i5o)  declarative 
sentence,  of  which  the  substantive  clause 
That  you  have  wronged  me  is  the  subject,  and 

Both  appear is  the  simple  predicate. 

Doth  appear  in  this is  the  complex  predicate. 

The  subject  is  a  substantive  clause,  having 

That as  its  connective,  used  here  without  an 

antecedent  term  (201,  3). 

You is  the  subject  (why?),  and 

Have  wronged is  the  simple  predicate.    Hence 

That  you  have  wronged  ...  is   the  basis,  or  unmodified  element. 

Wronged  is  limited  by 
Me a  simple  objective  element  of  the  first 


Parse  That  as  in  (144,  ?>.)  Observe,  there  is  no  principal  element  on  which 
it  can  depend,  since  the  whole  clause  occupies  the  highest  place  in  the  sentence. 

Ex.— That  the  truth  will  finally  prevail  cannot  be  questioned,  (=  It 
cannot  be  questioned  that  the  truth  will  finally  prevail.)  Who  wrote 
Junius's  Letters  is  uncertain.  AVhen  Congress  will  adjourn  is  a  question. 
Where  the  thief  concealed  the  goods  has  been  ascertained.  Why  will 
he  persist  ?  is  often  asked.  How  he  lives  on  such  a  pittance  is  a  mystery. 
Whether  the  clouds  will  pass  away  is  doubtful. 


SYNTAX — COMPLEX   SENTENCES.  187 

2.  The  predicate  may  consist  of  the  copula  and  a  sub- 
stantive clause. 

As  a  model,  see  11  for  the  clause  and  9  for  its  relation. 

Ex. — My  desire  is  that  the  difficulty  may  be  adjusted.  Our  hope  is 
that  an  entire  change  of  his  habits  may  restore  his  health.  His  objection 
was  that  the  requisite  means  could  not  be  easily  obtained. 

Let  the  pupil  change  all  the  examples  in  this  section  1  and  2  to  equivalent 
ones  introduced  by  it  (173,  4). 

3.  The  complex  subject  may  be  formed  by  joining  to 
the  simple  subject  an  adjective  clause. 

At  the  same  time,  it  may  be  limited  by  a  word  or  a  phrase. 

Model  12. — Lines  tvbicli  are  drawn  parallel  to  each  other  will 
never  meet.  In  this  example,  the  single  word  lines^  the  clause 
which  are  drawn  parallel  to  each  other,  the  phrase  will  meet,  and  the 
word  never,  combine  and  form  the  complex  declarative  sentence, 
of  which 

liines is  the  simple  subject  (why?). 

Will  meet is  the  simple  predicate  (why?). 

l<ines  which  are  drawn  parallel  to  each  other  is  the  complex  sub- 
ject (why?). 

Will  never  meet  .is  the  complex  predicate  (why?). 
Lines  is  limited  by 

Wtiich  are  drawn  parallel  to  each  other,  an  adjective  clause  or  ele- 
ment of  the  third  class,  of  which 

Which is  the  subject  and  the  connective,  and 

Are  drawn  parallel  is  the  predicate,  of  which  the  copulative  (82,7) 
verb  are  drawn  is  the  connective,  and  parallel  is 
the  attribute.  The  attribute  is  limited  by  to  each 
other  {is7,  l,b),  an  indirect  objective  element  of  the 
second  class. 

Ex. — Evils  which  cannot  be  cured  must  be  endured.^  Rays  which 
fall  perpendiculariy  upon  the  earth  are  called  vertical.  uVho  steals  my 
purse  steals  trashy  The  unwearied^  pains  which  he  took  to  accomplish 
his  plans  insured  their  success.  (Peter  the  Hermit,  who  preached  tlie 
first  crusade,  was  a  native  of  Amiens,  in  France.  The  dreams  of  Joseph, 
who  was  the  favorite  son  of  Jacob,  were  the  occasion  of  much  ill  will. 
The  stream  which  flows  from  the  mountain-range  that  bounds  the  valley 
on  the  east,  takes  its  name  from  an  early  custom  of  the  inhabitants. 


188  ENGLISH   GRAMMAE. 

Remark. — The  learner  will  readily  see  that  the  complex  subject  may  b© 
formed  by  joining  to  the  simple  subject  several  single  adjective  xoords,  phrases; 
or  clauses,  or  that  any  of  these  may  be  first  joined  to  each  other,  forming  a 
complex  adjective  element,  which  may  be  united  to  the  subject.  Let  him  be 
careful  to  show  that  the  leading  elevient  always  determines  the  name  (adjec- 
tive) and  class  of  the  whole  complex  element.  Thus,  in  the  last  example  the 
adjective  element  is  of  the  third  class ;  in  the  one  before  it,  of  the  second  class. 

4.  The  complex  predicate  may  be  formed  by  joining  to 
the  simple  predicate  an  objective  or  an  adverbial  clause. 

Here,  also,  modifying  loords  or  ph- as es  may  be  employed  besides  the  limit- 
ing clause;  and  they  may  be  joined  directly  to  the  simple  predicate,  or  to 
each  other,  forming  a  complex  element  of  the  first,  the  second,  or  the  third 
class.  As  a  model  for  the  clause,  see  Model  12 ;  as  a  model  for  its  relation, 
see  ModeL5  or  6. 

Ex.-|jJ  at  first  believed  that  all  these  objects  existed  within  t^ 
During  this  moment  of  darkness  I  imagined  that  I  had  lost  the  greatest 
part  of  my  being.  By  this  exercise  I  soon  learned  that  the  faculty  of 
feeing  was  expanded  over  every  part  of  my  frame. — Buffon.  v^ 

J^JIe  closed  his  career  before  he  had  completed  his  thirty-sixth  yearf 
Place  the  package  where  it  will  not  be  injured.  ^Had  he  reformed,  I 
would  have  assisted  himjf  as  I  encouraged  him  to  hope.  /If  such  be  the 
character  of  the  youthml  mind,  am  I  to  ask  you  what  must  be  the 
appearances  of  riper  yearsj*  When  the  farmer  came  down  to  breakfast, 
he  declared  that  his  watcn  had  gained  half  an  hour  in  the  night.  (The 
views  which  we  have  now  unfolded  show  that  a  vigorous  action  of  the 
mind  is  dependent  upon  a  healthful  condition  of  the  physical  function^ 

163.  Direct  and  Indirect  Discourse— Quotations. 

1.  Discourse  is, — 

(1.)  Direct,  when  originally  uttered  as  a  thought  of  its  author, 
or  when  afterwards  quoted  by  the  speaker,  without  change,  as  the 
already  uttered  words  of  the  author. 

(2.)  Indirect,  when  narrated  for  the  author  with  only  such 
changes  as  shall  make  it  the  adopted  language  of  the  speaker. 

Ex. — (J I  wiljobey  your  orders:" — the  thought  of  the  author. 

J  Direct.  Indirect. 

( I  said,  "  I  will  obey  your  orders,"  =^  said  that  I  ivovl^  obey,  &c. 
{Jfou  said,  "  I  willyobey  your  orders,"  ='aou  said  that  you  woul^ohey  my 


^  oruers. 

'He  said,  "  I  willjobey  your  orders,"  =^e  said  that  he  woulc^  obey  my 


orders. 


SYNTAX — QUOTATIONS.  189 

In  this  last  case,  instead  of  7ny  we  might  have  her,  your,  Ms,  our,  their,  to 
correspond  to  the  party  to  whom  the  pledge  was  made. 

2.  The  quoted  part  is  used  substantively,  and  appears  as  a  sub- 
stantive clause  most  commonly  in  the  objective. 

3.  All  substantive  clauses  may  be  divided  into  those  containing, — 

(1.)  A  statement  or  a  command. 

Ex. — Many  suppose  that  the  planets  are  inhabited.  The  captain  gave 
the  order,  "  Shoulder  arms." 

(2.)   An  inquiry. 

Ex. — Let  me  ask  why  you  have  come. 

4.  In  quoting  a  statement  of  another  directly,  we  should  indicate 
the  quotation  by  the  marks,  or  the  use  of  the  capital,  without  a  con- 
nective. But  in  quoting  indirectly,  the  quotation-marks  are  omitted, 
and  the  connective  that  should  be  employed. 

Ex. — God  said,  Let  there  be  light,  and  there  was  light.  St.  John 
says  that  God  is  love. 

5.  In  quoting  an  inquiry  of  another,  two  cases  may  occur : — 
(a.)  The  interrogative  may  be  a  direct  question  (l49,  1),  without  an 

interrogative  word ;  or, 

(6.)  It  may  be  an  indirect  question,  with  an  interrogative  pronoun  or 
an  adverb  for  a  connective  (78,  5). 

6.  When  a  direct  or  an  indirect  question  is  quoted  directly,  the 
quoted  part  should  begin  with  a  capital,  or  receive  the  quotation- 
marks,  having  the  interrogation  point  at  the  close. 

Ex. — They  inquired,  Will  he  certainly  comef  He  asked,  ^^  How  long 
must  we  wait?" 

7.  When  a  direct  question  is  quoted  indirectly,  the  connective 
whether  (sometimes  if)  is  used,  the  quotation-marks  are  omitted,  and 
a  period  is  placed  at  the  close;  as,  "He  asked  whether  the  time  had 
arrived."  When  an  indirect  question  is  quoted  indirectly,  the  in- 
terrogative word  becomes  the  connective,  and  the  sentence  closes 
with  the  period,  the  quoted  part  having  no  quotation-marks ;  as, 
"  They  asked  where  we  were  to  stop." 

8.  The  quoted  passage,  whether  direct  or  indirect,  may  form 
either  of  the  five  elements  of  the  sentence,  except  the  adverbial. 

Examples.—"  *.  Will  he  do  %'  is  the  question ;"  "  The  question 
is,  '(iVill  he  do  A"^  "The  question,  'i^ill  he  do  i^'  has  not  yet 
been  answered."     "  He  said  that  he  would  do  it." 


190  -  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Remark. — It  should  be  observed  that  the  interrogation  point  follows  all 
interrogative  clauses  when  quoted  directly,  and  is  omitted  after  all  such 
clauses  when  quoted  indirectly.  The  case  in  this  last  remark  must  not  be 
confounded  with  that  in  which  the  principal  clause  is  interrogative ;  as,  "  Shall 
I  tell  where  we  met  with  encouragement?"     "  Do  you  ask  me  who  I  am  ?" 

9.  The  clause  which  is  generally  the  leading  one  may  take, — 
(a.)  A  prominent  position  ;  as,  "  They  say  that  they  have  bought  it." 
(6.)  An  intermediate  position  ;  as,  "  For  all  that,  said  the  pendulum,  it 

is  very  dark  here." 

(c.)  A  position  wholly  subordinate ;  as,  "  He  left,  as  he  told  me,  before 

the  arrival  of  the  steamer." 


164.  Exercise. 

1.  Separate  the  following  sentences  into  their  elements,  and  point  out 
the  quotations : — 

Then  Judah  came  near  unto  him,  and  said,  0  my  lord,  let  thy 
servant,  I  pray  thee,  speak  a  word  in  my  lord's  ears.  "  Punctuality," 
replied  Washington,  "is  an  angel  virtue."  *t(Tell  me,  my  son^' 
said  he,  "  did  you  ever  hear  of  any  who  are  called  ungrateful  ?" 
Try  the  spirits,  whether  they  be  of  God.  He  asked  whether  they 
were  friends  or  foes.  "Why  have  you  come  so  late?"  was  the 
prompt  inquiry.  The  question,  "Where  shall  the  funds  be 
obtained  ?"  seemed  not  to  have  entered  their  minds.  Let  me  ask 
you  if  your  resolutions  are  as  firm  as  when  you  first  set  out  in  the 
spiritual  life.  The  Scriptures  inform  us  how  we  may  obtain  eternal 
life.  It  is  natural  to  man,  as  Patrick  Henry  eloquently  said,  to 
indulge  in  the  illusions  of  hope.  I  am  not  to  discuss  the  question 
whether  the  souls  of  men  are  naturally  equal.  But  I  would  ask, 
does  the  recollection  of  Bunker's  Hill,  Saratoga,  and  Yorktown 
afford  no  pleasure  ? 

2.  Show  which  quotations  are  direct,  and  which  are  indirect. 

3.  Show  which  contain  statements  or  commands,  and  which 

INQUIRIES. 

IV.  COMPOUND  SENTENCES.— PEINCIPAL  CLAUSES. 

165.  Elements  joined  Iby  a  Coordinate  Conjunction. 

1.  The  elements  of  a  compound  sentence  are  principal 
propositions. 


SYNTAX — COMPOUND   SENTENCES.  191 

Remark.— Each  principal  proposition  may  have  any  of  the  preceding 
forms  of  elements,  and  hence  may  by  itself  be  a  complex  sentence. 

Model  13.— I  was  hungry,  and  ye  gave  me  no  meat.  In  this  sen- 
tence the  two  independent  propositions  I  was  hungry  and  ye  gave 
me  no  meat  unite  and  form  a  compound  declarative  sentence,  of 
which  I  was  hungry  is  the  first  clause,  and  ye  gave  me  no  meat  is  the 
second,  being  joined  to  the  first  coordinately  by  the  conjunction  and. 

Analyze  each  clause  as  a  simple  sentence  by  the  preceding  models,  and 
parse  and  by  (144,  2.) 

EXAMPLES. 

I.  Copulative  Clauses. 

Witliont  emphasis,  with  a  single  connective. — The  rain  is  over, 
aiMl  the  sun  shines. 

Second  clause  emphatic,  by  means  of  an  associated  connective. 
— She  sings,  and,  besides,  she  plays  skilfully. 

Emphatic  by  correlative.— Xot  only  am  I  instructed  by  this  ex- 
ercise, but  I  am  also  invigorated. 

II.  Adversative  Clauses. 

Opposition  or  contrast. — He  did  not  return  to  his  parents,  but 
he  persisted  in  wandering  among  strangers. 

liimitation  or  restriction. — The  army  was  victorious,  but  the 
general  was  slain. 

Emphatic  opposition  or  restriction. — The  delinquent  has  been 
repeatedly  admonished,  but  still  he  is  as  negligent  as  ever. 

III.  Alternative  Clauses. 

oireringr  or  denying:  a  choice.-^urrender,  or  take  the  conse- 
quences.    He  cannot  ride,  nor  will  he  walk. 

With  emphasis. — Either  he  will  love  the  one,  and  hate  the 
other ;  or  else  he  will  hold  to  the  one,  and  despise  the  other. 

IV.  Causal  Clauses. 

The  south  wind  blows,  [and]  therefore  it  will  rain. 

Component  parts  complex. — ^When  he  rose,  every  sound  was 
hushed ;  and  when  he  spoke,  every  eye  was  fixed  upon  him.  You 
take  my  house,  when  you  do  take  the  prop  that  doth  sustain  my 
house ;  you  take  my  life,  when  you  do  take  the  means  whereby  I 
live. 


192  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

V.  CONTRACTED  SENTENCES. 

166.  Common  Part  omitted.— Compound  Elements. 

1.  A  compound  sentence  may  be  contracted  to  a  sentence  joar^m% 
compound,  by  using  but  once  all  elements  common  to  the  fiill  propo- 
sitions, and  uniting  all  others. 

Thus,  Heaven  shall  pass  away,  and  earth  shall  pass  away,  =  Heaven 
and  earth  shall  pass  away.  Observe  that  the  contracted  sentence  has  only  a 
compound  subject. 

Model  14.— Exercise  and  temperance  strengthen  the  constitution. 
It  is  a  contracted  declarative  sentence,  derived  from  the  compound 

sentence,  Exercise  strengthens  the  constitution,  and  temperance 
strengthens  the  constitution,  by  omitting  the  common  part  in  the  first 
proposition. 

Exercise  and  temperance  .  .  is  thetjompound  subject,  and 

fiitreng^then is  the  simple  predicate,  and 

Streng^then  the  constitution  is  the  complex  predicate.     Exercise 

and  strengthen  are  connected  by  the 

coordinate  conjunction  and,  because 

they  are  equal  in   rank   and  have 

a  similar   construction,  being  both 

equally  subjects  of  the  proposition. 

Streng:then  is  of  the  plural  number 

(Rule  XII).  'Pa.rse  and  sindstroigt hen. 

Examples. — Subjects  compound. — Virtue  and  vice  form  a  strong 

contrast  to  each  other.    To  soothe  thy  sickness,  and  to  watch  thy  health, 

shall  be  my  pleasure.     That  their  poetry  is  almost  uniformly  mournful, 

and  that  their  views  of  nature  were  dark  and  dreary,  will  be  allowed  by 

all  who  admit  the  authenticity  of  Ossian. 

Predicates  compound. — No  fascinated  throng  weep,  and  melt,  and 
tremble  at  his  gate.  The  present  life  is  not  wholly  prosaic,  precise, 
tame,  and  finite.  His  direction  was,  that  the  patient  should  take  a  great 
deal  of  exercise,  that  his  diet  should  be  very  carefully  attended  to,  and 
that  every  thing  of  an  exciting  nature  should  be  avoided. 

Adjective  element  compound. — Wise  and  good  men  are  frequently 
unsuccessful.  The  parting  of  Hector  and  Andromache  is  beautifully 
described  by  Homer.  That  faith  which  is  one,  which  renews  and  justifies 
all  who  possess  it,  which  confessions  and  formularies  can  never  adequately 
express,  is  the  property  of  all  alike. 

Objective  element  compound. — Behold  my  mother  and  my  brethren. 
It  teaches  us  to  be  thankful  for  all  favors  received,  to  love  each  other, 


SYNTAX — ABRIDGED   PROPOSITIONS.  193 

and  to  be  united.  He  found  that  every  thing  was  changed,  that  strangers 
inhabited  the  home  of  his  childhood,  and  that  he  was  alone  in  the  world. 
Adverbial  element  componnd. — The  boy  studied  diligently  and 
faithfully.  With  trembling  limbs  and  faltering  steps,  he  departed  from 
his  mansion  of  sorrow.  When  a  few  more  friends  have  left,  a  few  more 
hopes  deceived,  and  a  few  more  changes  mocked  us,  we  shall  be  brought 
to  the  grave,  and  shall  remain  in  the  tomb. 


167.  Subordinate  Clause  Abridged.— Abridged  Propo- 
sitions. 

1.  A  complex,  sentence  may  be  contracted  by  abridging 
its  subordinate  clause. 

Thus,  from  the  sentence,  "  When  peace  of  mind  is  secured,  we  may  smile  at 
misfortune,"  we  obtain  the  contracted  sentence,  "Peace  of  mind  being  secured, 
we  may  smile  at  misfortune."  The  expression  in  italics  conveys  the  same,  or 
nearly  the  same,  meaning  as  the  full  proposition  :  it  is  called  an  abridged  i^ro- 
position. 

Remark. — A  proposition  is  abridged  when  it  loses  its  copula,  or  when  its 
predicate  retains  only  its  attribute,  whatever  may  be  the  number  of  words  or 
syllables  remaining.  The  remaining  expression  is  called  an  abridged  propo- 
sition, even  though  it  contains  no  assertion  to  indicate  both  its  changed  form 
and  its  relation  to  the  primitive  form. 

2.  A  subordinate  clause  is  abridged  by  dropping  its 
connective,  and  changing  the  predicate  into  a  'participle  or 
an  infinitive. 

Ex. — To  an  American  (who  -visits  Europe  =)  visiting  Europe,  the  long 
voyage  he  has  to  make  is  an  excellent  preparative.  I  am  glad  that  I 
find  you  well,  =  I  am  glad  to  find  you  well. 

Remark. — The  participle  is  employed  usually  to  abridge  adjective  and 
adverbial  clauses,  and  the  infinitive  (sometimes  the  participle)  to  abridge  sub- 
stantive clauses.  In  many  cases  the  copula  is  dropped  and  the  attribute  alone 
remains,  in  apposition,  or  as  an  attributive  object. 

3.  The  subject  is  dropped  when  it  has  already  been  expressed  in 
the  principal  clause.  Otherwise  it  must  be  retained,  either  in  the 
nominative,  the  possessive,  or  the  objective  case. 

4.  Abridged  propositions  may  be  divided  into  two  classes,— 
participial  forms,  and  infinitive  forms. 

I.  Participial  Forms. 

IWodel  Vi.—A  ship  g-liding:  over  the  tvave.«)  is  a  beaut  if ul  objects 
N  17 


194  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

It  is  a  contracted  complex  sentence,  or  a  simple  sentence  derived  from 
the  complex  sentence,  "A  ship  which  glides  over  the  waves  is  a 
beautiful  object,"  by  abridging  its  subordinate  clause. 

Ship is  the  simple  subject,  and 

A  ship  g-liding  over  the  waves  is  the  complex  subject. 

Is  object is  the  simple  predicate:   is  is  the 

copula,  and  object  is  the  attribute. 
Is  a  beautiful  object is  the  complex  predicate  (point  out 

the  modifications  of  object). 

The  subject,  ship,  is  limited  by  "gliding  over  the  waves,"  a  complex  adjec- 
tive element  of  the  first  class;  it  is  equivalent  to  "which  glides  over  the 
waves"  (an  adjective  element  of  the  third  class),  and  is,  therefore,  an  abridged 
proposition,  obtained  by  dropping  the  subject  and  connective  "which,"  and 
changing  "  glides,"  the  predicate,  into  the  participle  "  gliding." 

EXAMPLES. 

Subject  nominative  retained. —  When  shame  is  lost,  all  virtue  is 
lost,  =  Shame  being  lost,  all  virtue  is  lost. 

Predicate  nominative  retained.—  That  one  should  be  a  servant  to 
the  whole  public  is  no  easy  task,  =  Being  a  servant  to  the  whole  public 
is  no  easy  task. 

soth  retained. — Since  a  youth  is  their  leader,  =  A  youth  being  their 
leader,  what  can  they  do  ? 

Observe,  where  a  clause  denotes  a  causal  relation,  or  some  accompanying 
circumstance,  as  in  the  last  example,  the  abridged  expression  does  not  come 
under  the  governing  influence  of  any  word  in  the  principal  clause :  hence 
both  the  subject  nominative  and  the  predicate  nominative  are  as  it  were 
abaoh-ed  from  any  grammatical  regimen  ,•  they  are,  hence,  in  the  nominative 
absolute. 

Subject  changed  to  the  possessive. — I  was  not  aware  that  he 
lived  in  the  city,  =  I  was  not  aware  of  his  living  in  the  city. 

Here  the  full  clause  and  the  abridged  expression  are  under  the  regimen 
of  aware,  or  aware  of  in  the  principal  clause.  Observe,  however,  that 
this  governing  word  has  no  control  over  his,  which  is  wholly  under  the 
government  of  living. 

The  same  with  pred.  noun  unchang^ed. — I  was  not  aware  that 
he  was  a  foreigner,  =  I  was  not  aware  of  his  being  a  foreig^ner.  I 
Wiis  not  aware  of  its  being  he. 

Here  his,  itself  a  subordinate  element  (153,  4,  Rem.),  has  no  power  over 
leiiig  a  foreigner,  its  principal  (153,  1).  Hence,  though  being  a  foreigner  is 
governed  by  of,  foreigner  alone  is  governed  neither  by  of  nor  being.     Like  the 


SYNTAX — ABEIDGED   PROPOSITIONS.  195 

case  above,  it  is  absolved  from  any  government,  and  is  pred.  nom.  aheolute. 
Similar  to  this  is  the  case  of  the  nominative  after  the  expletive  there  when 
the  proposition  is  abridged.  "Was  this  owing  to  there  being  twelve  primary- 
deities  among  the  G-othic  nations?"  Here  the  abridged  expression  is  under 
the  regimen  of  owing  to,  but  deities  is  not  governed  by  to.  In  the  full  form, 
deities  is  the  subject:— "Was  this  owing  to  thefactihaX  there  were  twelve  pri- 
mary deities,"  «fcc. 

Subject  and  pred.  changed  to  the  objective. — ^We  regarded  him 
as  being  a  good  writer.  He  intrusted  his  son  to  a  gentleman  named 
Edric.  I  saw  that  the  chrysalis  was  becoming  a  butterfly,  =  I  saw 
the  chrysalis  becoming  a  butterfly. 

Here,  as  in  many  other  cases,  there  is  a  difference  of  meaning  between  the 
two  forms.  In  this  case  the  usual  form  for  abridgment  is  the  infinitive. 
In  fact,  the  participle  is  equivalent  to  the  infinitive.  The  subject  is  changed 
to  the  objective,  and  the  predicate  noun  takes  the  same  case. 

Subject  dropped. — As  ice  were  walking  by  the  sea-shore,  we  dis- 
cerned the  light  of  the  burning  ship,  =  WaUcing  by  the  sea-shore,  &c. 
When  we  arrived  at  the  gate,  we  found  the  porter  asleep,  =  O71 
arriving  at  the  gate,  &c. 

II.  Infinitive  Forms. 
Model  16. —  The  officer  commanded  him  to  retire.     It  is  a  simple 
sentence,  derived  by  contraction  from  the  complex  sentence,  The 
officer  commanded  that  he  should  retire. 

Officer is  the  simple  subject,  and 

The  officer is  the  complex  subject. 

Commanded is  the  simple  predicate,  and 

Commanded  him  to  retire  is  the  complex  predicate.     Commanded 

is  limited  by  him  to  retire,  a  double 
object,  of  which  him  is  the  direct  and  to 
retire  the  attributive  object. 

Observe,  in  the  full  form,  that  the  whole  clause  is  the  only  object,  while  in 
the  abridged  form  the  subject  becomes  the  direct  object,  and  the  predicate,  still 
holding  ita  relation  to  it  as  attribute,  is  the  attributive  object. 

EXAMPLES. 

Subject  retained  in  the  objective.— We  taught  them  to  read.  We 
wish  that  you  would  stay,  --  We  wish  you  to  stay. 

Here  the  subject  should  be  dropped  when  it  is  the  same  as  that  of  the 
principal  clause.     I  wish  to  go;  not,  I  wish  me  to  go. 


196  ENGLISH   GEAMMAR. 

Predicate  noun  retained  in  the  nominative.— 7b  he  a  k.ing^  is  U 
be  a  sovereign. 

Snbject  and  predicate  retained  in  the  objective. — I  believed 
that  he  was  an  honest  man,  =  I  believed  him  to  be  an  hotiest  man. 
For  him  to  be  such  a  spendthrift  was  wholly  inexcusable. 

The  abridged  expression,  the  term  of  a  comparison. — The  bed 
is  shorter  than  that  a  man  can  stretch  himself  in  it. — Bible.  =  The 
bed  is  shorter  than  for  a  man,  &c. 

Here  the  subjects  are  unlike. 

My  friend  was  so  elated  as  that  he  forgot  his  appointment, — as  to 
forget,  &c.  The  soldiers  desired  nothing  more  than  that  they  might 
know  where  the  enemy  was, — than  to  know,  &c. 

Here  the  subjects  of  the  two  clauses  are  alike. 

An  incorporated  interrogative  sentence. — I  knew  not  what  I 
should  do,  =  what  to  do. 

Remark. — In  the  same  manner  we  have  whom  to  send,  when  to  go,  when 
to  stop,  Koto  to  proceed.  The  connectives  what,  xohere,  xohen,  &c.,  by  Rule 
8,  above,  should  be  dropped ;  but,  as  they  are  a  part  of  the  substance  of  the 
sentence,  they  must  be  retained.  Were  they  merely  connectives,  they  would 
be  dropped. 


VI.  TRANSFOKMATION  OF  SENTENCES.— EQUIVALENT 
ELEMENTS. 

168.  Equiyalent  Elements. 

1.  A  sentence  is  transformed  when  it  undergoes  a 
change  in  the  form  of  any  of  its  elements,  without  any- 
material  change  in  the  meaning;  the  new  forms  of  the 
elements,  which  express  the  same  or  nearly  the  same 
meaning,  are  called  equivalents, 

Ex. — After  he  had  discovered  Hispaniola,  Columbus  returned  to 
Spain,  =  Having  discovered  Hispaniola,  Columbus  returned  to  Spain. 
Here  the  subordinate  clause  denoting  time  is  exchanged  to  an  equivalent 
abridged  proposition  denoting  time  (see  167). 

2.  We  may  change  the  form  of  a  sentence, — 

(a.)  By  altering  the  grammatical  construction  of  any  of  its  elements ; 

(b.)  By  causing  or  supplying  an  ellipsis; 

(c.)  By  transposing  any  element  to  another  part  of  the  sentence. 


SYNTAX — EQUIVALENT   ELEMENTS.  197 

3.  The  grammatical  construction  of  an  element  may  be  altered 
by  changing,— 

(1.)  The  voice  of  the  verb. 

Ex. — Columbus  discovered  America,  ==  America  was  discovered  by 
Columbus. 

(2.)  The  class  from  one  of  the  first  class  (i55, 1,  2)  to  one  of  the 
second,  or  from  one  of  the  second  to  one  of  the  first. 

Ex. — A  morning  ride  is  refreshing,  =  A  ride  in  the  morning  is  refreshing. 

(3.)  A  complex  sentence  to  a  simple  one  (a  contracted  complex)^ 
by  abridging  its  subordinate  clause. 

Ex. — When  the  shower  had  passed,  we  resumed  our  journey,  =  The 
shower  having  passed,  we  resumed  our  journey. 

(4.)  A  simple  sentence  to  a  complex,  by  expanding  any  of  its 
elements  into  a  proposition. 

Ex. — A  merciful  man  is  merciful  to  his  beast,  =  A  man  who  is  merci- 
ful is  merciful  to  his  beast. 

(5.)  A  complex  sentence  to  a  compound,  by  raising  the  subordi- 
nate clause  to  an  equal  rank  with  the  principal,  and  changing  the 
subordinate  connective  to  a  coordinate. 

Ex. —  When  spring  comes,  the  flowers  will  bloom,  =  The  spring  will 
come,  and  the  flowers  will  bloom. 

(6.)  A  compound  sentence  to  a  complex,  by  depressing  one  of 
its  propositions  into  a  subordinate  rank. 

Ex. — Man  has  a  moral  sense,  and  therefore  he  is  an  accountable 
being,  =  Since  man  has  a  moral  sense,  he  is  an  accountable  being. 

(7.)  A  question  for  gaining  assent  (i49,  2,  Eem.)  may  be  changed 
into  a  declarative  sentence,  or  a  declarative  sentence  may  be 
changed  into  a  question  for  gaining  assent. 

Ex. — Will  he  plead  against  me  with  his  great  power  ?  =  He  will  not 
plead  against  me  with  his  great  power. 

(8.)  Its  wliole  constrnction,  by  entirely  remodelling  it. 

Ex. — That  which  agrees  with  the  will  of  God  should  please  us,  =  We 
should  be  pleased  Avith  whatever  is  agreeable  to  the  will  of  our  heavenly 
Father. 

(9.)  A  compound  sentence  to  a  partial  compound. 

Ex. — Bacon  was  a  distinguished  writer,  Shakspeare  was  a  distinguished 
writer,  and  Butler  was  a  distinguished  writer,  =  Bacon,  Shakspeare,  and 
Butler  were  distinguished  writers. 


198  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

(10.)  Any  contracted  compound  sentence,  to  a  complete  com- 
pound. 

Ex. — The  king  and  queen  were  absent,  =  The  king  was  absent,  and 
the  queen  was  absent. 

4.  The  arrangement  of  the  elements  is  the  position 
which  they  take  in  the  sentence. 

5.  There  are  two  kinds  of  arrangement, — the  natural  or  gram- 
matical, and  the  inverted  or  transposed. 

6.  In  a  proposition,  by  the  natural  order,  the  subject  is  placed 
before  the  predicate;  the  adjective  element  is  placed  before  the 
noun  when  of  the  first  class,  but  after  the  noun  when  of  the  second 
or  third;  the  objective  element  is  placed  after  the  verb  which 
governs  it ;  and  the  adverbial  element  commonly  follows  the  ob- 
jective element. 

Ex. — The  good  boy  studied  his  geogra]phy  attentively.  The  kingdom 
of  Sardinia  is  situated  in  the  south  of  Europe. 

7.  An  element  is  transposed  whenever  it  is  placed  out 

of  its  natural  order. 

Ex. — Great  is  Diana  of  the  Ephesians.  Copernicus  these  wonders 
told.     Wisely  were  his  efforts  directed. 

8.  When  the  verb  "to  be"  predicates  existence,  the  subject  is  not 
only  transposed,  but  its  place  is  supplied  by  the  expletive  "  there" 
(i34,  9).  So  when  a  phrase  or  a  clause  as  subject  (i60, 1 ;  162, 1)  is 
transposed,  its  place  is  supplied  by  "  it"  used  as  an  expletive  (70, 4). 


169.  Exercise. 

1.  Use  the  active  for  the  passive,  and  the  passive  for  the  active,  in  the 
following  examples,  supplying  the  agent  where  omitted: — 

AVellington  is  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey.  Not  a  drum  was 
heard,  nor  a  funeral  note.  Energy  of  purpose  awakens  powers 
before  unknown.  Can  Honor's  voice  provoke  the  silent  dust  ?  Three 
of  your  armies,  O  Eomans,  have  been  slaughtered  by  Mark  Antony. 
I  give  my  hand  and  my  heart  to  this  vote. 

2.  In  the  following,  change  any  element  of  the  first  class  to  one  of  the 
second;  and  the  reverse : — 

A  marble  statue  was  placed  in  the  grove.  Achilles  was  a  Grecian 
hero.    The  siege  of  Troy  lasted  ten  years.    In  dreams  his  song  of 


SYNTAX — ANALYSIS.  199 

triumph  [he]  heard.  Strike  the  golden  lyre  again.  Last  came  Joy's 
ecstatic  trial. 

3.  Change  the  following  complex  sentences  to  simple  or  contracted 
complex  sentences,  by  abridging  the  subordinate  clauses : — 

A  man  who  is  deceitful  can  never  be  trusted.  When  the  orator 
had  finished,  the  assembly  retired.  Heard  ye  the  whisper  of  the 
breeze,  as  soft  it  murmured  by  ?  He  declares  that  she  is  a  slave  of 
his.  This  is  the  man  who  deserves  commendation.  He  went  to 
Egypt  that  he  might  see  the  pyramids. 

4.  Expand  the  italicized  elements  into  clauses : — 

The  crocuses,  blooming  in  the  garden,  attracted  the  bees.  Hanni- 
bal, the  Carthaginian  general,  conquered  the  Romans  in  four  battles. 
We  told  him  to  leave,  Caesar  should  have  perished  on  the  brink  of 
the  E-ubicon  before  attempting  to  cross  it. 

Perhaps  in  this  neglected  spot  is  laid 
Some  heart  once  pregnant  with  celestial  fire. 

5.  Supply  the  words  omitted  by  ellipsis : — 

All  nature  is  but  art,  unknown  to  thee , 

All  chance,  direction  which  thou  canst  not  see ; 

All  discord,  harmony  not  understood ; 

All  partial  evil,  universal  good. 

6.  Arrange  the  elements  in  their  natural  order : — 

Great  is  Diana  of  the  Ephesians.  Welcome  thou  art  to  me.  To 
each  honor  is  given.  In  fearless  freedom  he  arose.  Whom  ye 
ignorantly  worship,  him  declare  I  unto  you. 

7.  See  if  the  following  can  be  improved  by  transposing  any  element : — 
I  would  be  Diogenes,  were  I  not  Alexander.     The  parting  soul 

relies  on  some  fond  breast.  That  is  the  question, — to  be,  or  not  lo 
be.  Then  the  hills  shook,  riven  with  thunder.  When  creation 
began  we  know  not. 

170.  Directions  for  Analysis  of  Sentences  and  Elements. 

Sentences.—!.  Read  the  sentence,  and  determine  by  its  meaning 
whether  it  is  declarative,  interrogative,  imperative,  or  exclamatory. 

2.  Determine  the  leading  assertion,  and  point  out  the  subject  and 
the  predicate. 

3.  If  any  of  the  parts  are  inverted,  arrange  them  in  the  natural 
order. 


200  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

4.  If  necessary,  supply  ellipses. 

5.  Find  all  the  separate  words  or  groups  of  words  which  express 
distinct  ideas  added  to  the  subject,  and  show  in  what  way  they 
modify  it. 

6.  In  the  same  manner  dispose  of  all  the  additions  to  the  predicate. 

7.  If  neither  the  subject,  nor  the  predicate,  nor  any  of  the  addi- 
tions to  either,  contains  a  proposition,  the  sentence  is  simple. 

8.  But  if  either  contains  a  proposition,  the  sentence  is  complex. 

9.  If  the  sentence  contains  two  or  more  independent  assertions, 
it  is  compound,  and  should  first  be  separated  into  its  component  parts, 
each  of  which  should  be  analyzed  as  a  simple  or  a  complex  sentence. 

10.  If  the  subject,  the  predicate,  or  any  of  the  additions  to  either, 
contains  two  coordinate  parts,  the  sentence  is  a.  partial  compound, 
and  should  be  analyzed  like  a  simple  sentence,  with  the  exception 
of  the  compound  part :  this  should  be  named  as  a  compound  element, 
and  then  resolved  into  its  component  parts. 

11.  If  the  subject,  the  predicate,  or  any  of  the  additions  to  either, 
contains  2^  participle,  or  an  infinitive  equivalent  in  its  use  to  a  de- 
pendent proposition,  the  sentence  is  a  contracted  complex,  and 
should  be  analyzed  like  a  simple  sentence.  Yet  the  part  derived  by 
abridging  a  dependent  clause  (i67,  2)  should  be  named,  and  its 
equivalent  proposition  given. 

Elements.— 1.  Eesolve  the  sentence  as  in  ito;  and  then,  regard- 
ing each  part  as  an  element,  classify  it  as  in  (i55.) 

Note. — This  analysis  gives  the  oflSce  and  relation  of  all  the  subordinate 
ideas  and  of  all  the  words  in  the  sentence ;  that  in  170  gives  the  relation  of 
all  the  prominent  ideas. 

2.  If  any  element  contains  but  one  word,  it  is  completely  reduced, 
and  may  then  be  parsed. 

3.  If  an  element  containing  more  than  one  word  is  simple  (i56, 1), 
it  must  be  a  phrase  or  a  clause,  and  is  to  be  still  further  analyzed  by 
pointing  out, — 

[a.)  The  connective,  showing  what  parts  it  joins. 
[b.)  The  part  which  expresses  the  idea:— in  case  of  the  phrase, 
a  word;  in  case  of  the  clause,  the  subject  and  the  predicate. 

4.  If  an  element  is  complex  or  compound,  reduce  it  to  its  simple 
elements,  and  then  proceed  as  in  2  or  3  above. 

5.  In  case  of  a  complex  element,  point  out  and  dispose  of  the 
principal  element,  or  basis  (i56,  4),  then  each  of  the  others  in  the 
order  of  their  rank. 


SYNTAX — EXERCISE   IN   ANALYSIS.  201 

6.  In  case  of  a  compound  element,  separate  it  into  its  component 
simple  elements,  point  out  and  classify  the  coordinate  conjunction 
which  joins  them,  and  then  dispose  of  each  as  in  2  or  3  above. 

7.  Thus  the  sentence  is  reduced  by  simple  and  methodical  steps 
to  the  parts  of  speech  which  enter  into  it, 

Remakk. — It  will  not,  generally,  be  best  to  parse  all  the  words.  It  is  a 
good  exercise  for  the  pupil  to  name  them  in  the  order  of  their  rank,  from  the 
subject  or  the  predicate  to  that  which  holds  the  lowest  rank.  The  teacher 
can  best  judge  what  ones  should  be  parsed. 

171.  General  Exercise  in  Analysis. 

Eemark. — The  learner  who  has  carefully  studied  the  preceding  develop- 
ment of  the  elements  of  the  sentence  is  now  prepared  to  analyze  and  form  an 
English  sentence,  from  the  simplest,  with  which  he  began,  up  to  the  most 
complicated.  Let  him  examine  the  following  model  and  apply  the  general 
principles  of  analysis  to  the  examples  in  this  exercise.  It  will  not  always  be 
best  to  separate  the  elements  into  their  parts.  Let  the  learner  name  them, 
and  give  their  general  effect  in  the  sentence. 

Model  17. — "  The  Cynic  who  twitted  Aristippus  by  observing 
that  the  philosopher  who  could  dine  on  herbs  might  despise  the 
company  of  a  king,  was  well  replied  to  by  Aristippus,  when  he  re- 
marked that  the  philosopher  who  could  enjoy  the  company  of  a 
king  might  also  despise  a  dinner  of  herbs." 

This  is  a  complex  sentence,  containing  seven  clauses, — one  princi- 
pal, and  six  subordinate. 

(1.)   The  Cynic  was  ivell  replied  to  by  Aristippus^ 

(2.)    Who  twitted  Aristippus  by  observing, 

(3.)   Tliat  the  philosopher  might  despise  the  company  of  a  hing, 

(4.)    Who  could  dine  on  herbs, 

(5.)    When  he  remarked, 

(6.)   That  the  pjhilosopher  anight  also  despise-  a  dinner  of  herbs^ 

(7.)    Who  could  enjoy  the  company  of  a  king. 

The  first  is  the  principal  clause,  and  the  others  are  subordinate. 

Cynic  is  the  subject  of  the  principal  clause. 

Was  replied  to  is  the  predicate. 

The  subject.  Cynic,  is  limited  by  "who  twitted  Aristippus  by 
observing,"  &c.,  a  complex  adjective  element  of  the  third  class; 
"who"  is  the  connective  and  subject,  "twitted"  is  the  predicate, 
and  is  limited,  first,  by  "Aristippus,"  a  simple  objective  element  of 
the  first  class,  and  also  by  "  by  observing  that  the  philosopher  might 
despise  the  company  of  a  king,"  a  complex  adverbial  element  of 


202  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

the  second  class;  "by  observing"  is  the  basis,  "by"  is  the  con* 
nective,  and  "observing"  is  the  object;  "observing"  is  limited  by 
"  that  the  philosopher  might  despise  the  company  of  a  king,"  a 
complex  objective  element  of  the  third  class,  of  which  "that"  is 
the  connective;  "philosopher"  is  the  subject,  and  is  limited  by 
"  who  could  dine  on  herbs,"  an  adjective  element  of  the  third  class ; 
"  might  despise"  is  the  predicate,  and  is  limited  by  "  the  company 
of  a  king,"  a  complex  objective  element  of  the  first  class. 

The  predicate,  was  replied  to,  is  limited,  first,  by  "  well,"  a  simple 
adverbial  element  of  the  first  class,  and  by  "by  Aristippus,"  an 
adverbial  element  of  the  second  class,  and  also  by  the  clause  "  w^hen 
he  remarked  that  the  philosopher,"  &c.,  a  complex  adverbial  ele- 
ment of  the  third  class,  of  which  "  when"  is  the  connective,  "  he" 
is  the  subject,  and  "remarked"  is  the  predicate;  "remarked"  is 
limited  by  "that  the  philosopher,"  &c.,  a  complex  objective  element 
of  the  third  class,  of  which  "  that"  is  the  connective,  "  philosopher" 
is  the  subject,  "the  philosopher  who  could  enjoy  the  company  of  a 
king"  is  the  logical  subject,  "might  despise"  is  the  predicate,  and 
"  might  also  despise  a  dinner  of  herbs"  is  the  logical  predicate ;  the 
subject,  "philosopher,"  is  limited  by  the  clause  "who  could  enjoy 
the  company  of  a  king,"  a  complex  adjective  element  of  the  third 
class,  of  which  "who"  is  the  connective  and  subject,  "'could  enjoy" 
is  the  predicate,  and  is  limited  by  "  the  company  of  a  king,"  a  com- 
plex objective  element  of  the  first  class;  the  predicate  "might  de- 
spise" is  limited  by  "  a  dinner  of  herbs,"  a  complex  objective  ele- 
ment of  the  first  class,  of  which  "  dinner"  is  the  basis,  and  is  limited 
by  "of  herbs,"  a  simple  adjective  element  of  the  second  class. 

Model  18.— Brief  Method. 

Cynic, the  subject,  is  limited  by  the  expression  who 

twitted  Aristippus  .  .  .  king^,  used  to  identify 
the  Cynic,  by  stating  what  he  did  and  said. 
Was  replied  to,  the  predicate,  is  limited, — 

(1.)  By  well,  showing  iha  fitness  of  the  reply. 
(2.)  By  by  Aristippus,  showing  by  whom  the 

reply  was  made. 
(3.)   By  when  he  remarked  .   .   .  dinner  of 
herbs,  used  to  show  the  reply  itself,  rather 
than  the  time  of  it. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences  according  to  the  models: — 

Most  men  know  what  they  hate ;  few  what  they  love. 

He  who  openly  tells  his  friends  all  that  he  thinks  of  them,  muarti 


SYNTAX — EXERCISE   IN   ANALYSIS.  203 

expect  that  they  will  secretly  tell  his  enemies  much  that  they  do 
not  think  of  him. 

That  nations  sympathize  with  their  monarch's  glory,  that  they 
are  improved  by  his  virtues,  and  that  the  tone  of  morals  rises  high 
when  he  that  leads  the  band  is  perfect,  are  truths  admitted  with 
exultation  and  felt  with  honest  pride. 

Highly  elated  by  his  unexpected  good  fortune,  he  returned  home. 
Saving  carefully  the  fruits  of  his  labor,  he  at  length  was  able  to 
purchase  a  farm. 

A  pretended  patriot,  he  impoverished  his  country. 

How  is  it  that  tyranny  has  thus  triumphed, — that  the  hopes  with 
which  we  greeted  the  French  Revolution  have  been  crushed, — that  a 
usurper  plucked  up  the  last  roots  of  the  tree  of  liberty  and  planted 
despotism  in  its  place? 

Eevolutions  which  are  acted  out  in  a  day  have  often  been  years 
or  centuries  in  preparation. 

Why  did  Wolsey,  near  the  steps  of  fate, 
On  weak  foundations  raise  the  enormous  weight? 
Why,  but  to  sink  beneath  misfortune's  blow 
With  louder  ruins  to  the  gulf  below  ? 

Will  you  believe  that  the  pure  system  of  Christian  faith  which 
appeared  eighteen  hundred  years  ago,  in  one  of  the  obscurest 
regions  of  the  Roman  empire,  at  the  moment  of  the  highest  mental 
cultivation  and  of  the  lowest  moral  degeneracy ;  which  superseded 
at  once  all  the  curious  fabrics  of  pagan  philosophy ;  which  spread 
almost  instantaneously  through  the  civilized  world,  in  opposition  to 
the  prejudices,  the  pride,  and  the  persecution  of  the  times ;  which 
has  already  had  the  most  beneficial  influence  on  society,  and  has 
been  the  source  of  almost  all  the  melioration  of  the  human  cha- 
racter ;  and  which  is  now  the  chief  support  of  the  harmony,  the 
domestic  happiness,  the  moral  and  intellectual  improvement  of  the 
best  part  of  the  world :  will  you  believe,  I  say,  that  this  system 
originated  in  the  unaided  reflections  of  twelve  Jewish  fishermen  on 
the  Sea  of  Galilee,  with  the  son  of  a  carpenter  at  their  head  ? 

Join  subordinate  elements  to  the  following  indefinite  se?itences,  and 
thereby  convert  them  into  definite  ones : — 

Messenger  brought. 

Will  the  pupil  remember? 

Men  understood. 

Poet  says. 

History  was  traced. 


204  ENGLISH   GEAMMAR. 

SYNTAX  OF   WORDS. 

In  the  syntax  of  words  we  recognize  a  regular,  an 
incorrect,  and  a  peculiar  use. 

I.  REGUIiAR  USE. 

172.  Rules  of  Construction. 

A  rule  of  syntax  is  a  statement  of  the  law  which 
governs  the /orm  and  the  use  of  a  word  in  construction. 

Rule  I.-V^  noun  or  a  pronoun  used  as  the  subject  of 
a  proposition  must  be  in  the  nominative  case. 

Rule  II. — A  noun  or  a  pronoun  used  as  the  attribute 
of  a  proposition  must  be  in  the  nominative  case. 

Rule  III. — A  pronoun  must  agree  with  its  antecedent 
in  person,  number,  and  gender. 

Rule  IV.-^The  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject  in 
person  and  number. 

Rule  V.-f-^^^  adjective  or  a  participle  must  belong 
to  some  noun  or  pronoun. 

Rule  VI.-^A  noun  or  a  pronoun  used  to  explain  or 
identify  another  noun  or  another  pronoun,  is  put  by  appo- 
sition in  the  same  case. 

Rule  VII.-V-A  noun  or  a  pronoun  used  to  limit  another 
noun  by  denoting  possession,  must  be  in  the  possessive 
case. 

Rule  VIIL-I^A  noun  or  a  pronoun  used  as  the  object 
of  a  transitive  verb,  or  its  participles,  must  be  in  the 
objective  case. 

Rule  IX.— Adverbs  are  used  to  limit  verbs,  participles, 
adjectives,  and  other  adverbs. 

Rule  X. — The  nominative  case  independent,  and  the 
In  jection,  have  no  grammatical  relation  to  the  other 
parts  of  the  sentence. 


SYNTAX — RULES    AND   CAUTIONS.  205 

Rule  XI. — Coordinate  conjunctions  are  used  to  con- 
nect similar  elements. 

Rule  XII. — When  a  verb  or  a  pronoun  relates  to  two 
or  more  nouns  connected  by  a  coordinate  conjunction, — 

(1.)  If  it  agrees  with  them  taken  conjointly,  it  must 
be  in  the  plural  number. 

(2.)  But  if  it  agrees  with  them  taken  separately,  it 
must  be  of  the  same  number  as  the  noun  or  the  pronoun 
which  stands  next  to  it. 

(3.)  If  it  agrees  with  one,  and  not  the  other,  it  must 
take  the  number  of  that  one. 

Rule  XIII.— A  preposition  is  used  to  show  the  rela- 
tion of  its  object  to  the  word  on  w^hich  the  latter  depends. 

Rule  XrV. — A  noun  or  a  pronoun  used  as  the  object 

of  a  preposition  must  be  in  the  objective  case. 

Rule  XV. — Subordinate  connectives  are  used  to  join 
dissimilar  elements. 

Rule  XVI. — The  infinitive  has  the  construction  of 
the  noun,  with  the  signification  and  limitations  of  the 
verb,  and,  when  dependent,  is  governed  by  the  word 
which  it  limits. 

Rule  XVII. — Participles  have  the  construction  of 
adjectives  and  nounSj  and  are  limited  like  verbs. 


RULES,  CAUTIONS,  AND  REMARKS. 
173.  The  Subject. 

1.  Rule  I. — A  noun  or  a  pronoun  used  as  the  subject  of 

a  proposition  must  be  in  the  nominative  case. 

Ex.— GiBsar  conquered  Gaul,     /have  found  a  man  who  professes  to 
teach  all  that  is  necessary  to  be  known. 

A  letter,  a  symbol,  a  phraise,  or  a  clause,  when  used 
as  the  subject,  is  a  noun  in  the  nominative  singular. 

18 


206  EXGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Ex. — A  is  a  vowel.  +  is  the  sign  of  additioo.  To  steal  is  base; 
Tliat  you  have  wronged  me  doth  appear  in  this. 

A  noun  or  a  pronoun,  as  the  subject  of  an  abridged  pro- 
position, is  in  the — 

NominatiTe  absolute  with  a  participle  (l67,  4,  Ex.) 
when  its  case  depends  upon  no  other  word ;  but  in  the 

ObjectiTe  with  an  infinitive  when  its  case  depends  upon 

a  verb  or  a  preposition. 

Ex. — Shame  being  lost,  all  virtue  is  lost.  They  requested  him  to  leave. 
For  you  to  be  released,  and /or  me  to  be  burdened,  is  obviously  unju&t. 

2.  A  noun  or  a  pronoun  is  in  the  nominative  when  used, — 
(1.)   As  subject  (l47,  4). 

(2.)   As  predicate  (l47,  5). 

(3.)  In  apposition  with  the  subject  or  the  predicate  (i83). 

(4.)  As  the  compeliative  (i58.  Model  8). 

(5.)  As  subject  or  predicate  of  an  abridged  proposition  (l67,  4). 

(6.)  In  headings,  titles,  and  unfinished  sentences. 

3.  The  subject  is  usually  omitted, — 

(1.)  In  the  imperative  mode,  in  which  case  it  is  always  a  pro- 
noun of  the  second  person,  even  when  the  compellative  is  expressed. 
Ex. — Son,  arise.     Go,  my  friend. 

(2.)  After  hut,  when,  while,  if,  and  though;  also  after  compari- 
sons made  by  as  and  than, 

Ex. — We  shall  go,  if  [it  is]  possible.  Though  poor,  luxurious ; 
though  submissive,  vain.  There  is  no  heart  but  [what  or  it']  must  feel 
them.    The  disaffection  was  spread  far  wider  than  was  supposed. 

4.  The  proper  position  of  the  subject  is  before  the  predicate ; 
but  it  is  placed  after  either  the  verb  or  its  auxiliary, — 

(1.)  In  the  imperative  mode,  in  direct  questions,  in  exclamatory 
sentences,  in  suppositions  without  a  connective,  in  sentences  arranged 
for  rhetorical  effect,  and  in  the  governing  clause  of  a  direct  quota- 
tion. 

Ex. — Go  ye  into  all  the  world,  and  preach  [ye]  the  gospel  to  every 
creature.  Doth  my  father  yet  live  ?  How  is  the  great  fallen  !  Were  I 
not  Alexander,  I  would  be  Diogenes.  Great  is  Diana  of  the  Ephesians. 
Jt  is  natural  to  man,  said  Patrick  Henry,  to  indulge  in  the  illusions  of 
hope. 


SYNTAX — RULES   AND   CAUTIONS.  207 

(2.)  When  the  subject  of  a  sentence  is  a  phrase  or  a  clause.  The 
vacant  place  of  the  subject  is  then  filled  by  the  expletive  "it,"  a 
word  adapted  to  this  idiom,  but  not  necessary  to  the  construction. 

"When  the  subject  is  before  the  predicate,  the  expletive  should  not  be  used. 
The  following  sentence,  therefore,  is  wrong : — "  That  the  soul  be  without  know- 
ledge, it  is  not  good."  The  following  sentences  are  faulty  for  want  of  the 
expletive,  because  which,  the  object  of  the  infinitive  subject,  is  erroneously 
made  subject  of  the  following  verb.  "Why  do  ye  that  which  [it]  is  not 
lawful  to  do  on  the  sabbath  days  ?"  "  We  have  done  that  which  [it]  was  our 
duty  to  do." 

6.  The  object  of  the  verb  in  the  active  voice  becomes  its  subject 
in  the  passive  voice. 

Ex. — John  granted  the  Magna  Charta,  =  The  Magna  Charta  was 
granted  by  John. 

Caution  I. — Never  use  the  objective  as  the  subject  of  a  finite  verb. 
Say,  "/did  it,"— not  ''Me  did  it." 

Note. — This  caution  should  be  specially  heeded  in  the  construction  of 
subjects  consisting  of  a  personal  pronoun  used  jointly  with  a  noun  or  another 
pronoun,  in  the  use  of  the  relative  and  interrogative  pronouns,  in  the  use  of 
a  noun  or  a  pronoun  as  a  term  of  comparison  after  thmi  or  as,  and  in  the 
answers  to  questions.     See  examples  under  Incorrect  Use. 


174.  Exercise. 

1.  Analyze  the  following  examples,  and  parse  the  SUBJECTS: — 
Those  who  would  give  the  highest  training  to  the  mind  must 
furnish  to  it  deeds  of  excellence,  tales  of  heroism.  How  beautiful 
an  object  \%  a  tree,  growing,  with  all  its  foliage,  freely  and  fairly  on  a 
sheltered  lawn !  Ye  hills,  lift  up  your  voices ;  let  the  shaggy  woods 
upon  your  summits  wave  with  adoration.  Has  reason  fled  from 
our  borders?  Have  we  ceased  to  reflect?  There  is  great  economy 
in  giving  pleasure  to  children.  A  trifling  gift,  a  little  kindness, 
goes  a  great  way,  and  is  long  remembered.  It  is  natural  for  man 
to  indulge  in  the  illusions  of  hope.  To  err  is  human ;  to  forgive, 
divine.  It  was  said  that  fifty  guineas  had  been  paid  for  a  single 
ticket.  It  was  determined  to  examine  witnesses  at  the  bar  of  the 
Commons.  The  doves  besought  the  hawk  to  defend  them.  The 
captain  commanded  his  company  to  march. 

Model   I. — "Happiness   depends    upon   the   prudent 
constitution  of  the  habits." — Pahy, 


208  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

This  is  a  simple  sentence,  containing  three  sentence-elements. 
The  subject  is  "  happiness ;"  the  predicate,  "  depends ;"  and  the 
adverbial  element,  "  upon  the  constitution  of  the  habits." 

Remark. — In  this  and  in  the  following  models  the  teacher  can  best  jud^^e 
whether  or  not  the  pupil  needs  more  practice  in  minute  analysis.  If  sufficient 
skill  has  already  been  acquired,  it  is  recommended  that  only  the  sentence-ele- 
ments be  pointed  out  (171,  Mod.  18),  with  their  mutual  influence  upon  each 
other, — except  in  rare  constructions,  or  when  the  pupil  fails  to  comprehend  the 
true  relations  of  the  parts. 

Happiness  is  a  common  noun,  third,  sing.,  neut.,  nom.,  and  is  used 
as  the  subject.     (Eule  I.) 

Model  II. — "It  is  evident  that  his  conduct  was 
directed  by  a  profound  policy." — Macaulay, 

This  is  a  complex  sentence.  Arranged  in  the  natural  order,  it 
would  be,  "That  his  conduct  was  directed  by  a  profound  policy 
is  evident."  (i68,  4,  2.)  In  either  form  it  contains  two  general 
elements : — the  subject,  "  That  his  conduct  was  directed  by  a  pro- 
found policy ;"  the  predicate,  "  is  evident." 

The  subject  is  a  substantive  clause,  third,  sing.,  neut.,  and  in  the  nomi- 
native case,  by  Rule  I.  a. 

For  the  use  of  that,  see  201^  3.  This  clause  is  also  represented  by  the 
expletive  "it"  (70,  4),  of  the  same  person,  number,  gender,  and  case  as  the 
clause,  and  is  grammatically  pleonastic,  but  is  essential  to  this  arrangement 
of  the  true  subject  (see  4,  above),  and  is  used  to  introduce  the  sentence  in  an 
agreeable  way. 

Model  III. — "The  patriots  not  dispersing,  Pitcairn 
ordered  his  men  to  fire." 

This  is  a  simple  sentence,  having  abridged  propositions  for  its 
elements.  It  is  derived,  by  contraction,  from  the  complex  sentence, 
"As  the  patriots  did  not  disperse,  Pitcairn  ordered  that  his  men 
should  fire." 

The  subject  is  "  Pitcairn ;"  the  predicate,  "  ordered ;"  objective 
element,  "his  men  to  fire;"  and  the  adverbial  element,  "the 
patriots  not  dispersing." 

The  subject  is  not  modified.  The  predicate  is  modified  by  the 
double  object  "his  men  to  fire."  (187,  10.)  "  Men'' is  the  direct, 
and  "  to  fire"  the  attributive,  object.  The  combination  is  derived 
from  the  objective  proposition  "that  his  men  should  fire," — "men" 
being  the  subject,  and  "  should  fire"  the  predicate. 


SYNTAX — NOUN    AS   ATTRIBUTE.  209 

"  Men"  is  a  common  noun,  third  person,  plural  number,  mascu- 
line gender,  and  is  logically  the  subject  of  "to  fire"  (see  173,  1); 
but,  since  the  proposition  is  abridged,  it  becomes,  with  "  to  fire," 
the  object  of  "  ordered."  "  To  fire"  is  a  regular  intransitive  verb, 
in  the  infinitive,  present  tense,  and  is  used  as  a  noun  to  form  the 
attributive  object  of  "  ordered." 

The  predicate  is  further  modified  by  "  the  patriots  not  dispersing," 
an  abridged  expression  equivalent  to  "  as  the  patriots  did  not  dis- 
perse," and  is  used  to  show  the  occasion  or  reason  for  the  order.  In 
the  full  form,  it  would  be  connected  with  "  ordered"  by  "  as ;"  but 
in  the  abridged  form  it  is  grammatically  (not  logically)  (i67,  Ex.) 
set  free,  and  hence  is  said  to  be  absolute, — "  patriots,"  the  subject, 
still  remaining  in  the  nominative,  by  Rule  X.,  d. 

2.  Construct  or  select  examples  to  illustrate  the  subject  in  either  form^ 
as  given  in  the  models. 


175.  A  Noun  or  a  Pronoun  as  Attribute. 

1.  Rule  II. — A  noun  or  a  pronoun  used  as  the  attribute 
of  a  proposition  must  be  in  the  nominative  case. 
Ex. — I  am  he.     I,  who  walk  queen  of  the  gods. 

(a.)  A  letter,  a  mark,  a  phrase,  or  a  clause,  used 

substantively  as  the  attribute  of  a  proposition,  is  a  noun  in 

the  nominative  case. 

Ex. — That  letter  is  h.  To  purloin  is  to  steal.  A  fourth  mistake  in 
relation  to  happiness  is,  that  we  make  our  provision  only  for  the  preseni 
world. — Buckminster. 

(b.)  A  noun  or  a  pronoun  used  as  the  attribute  in  an 
abridged  proposition,  after  the  participle  or  the  infinitive 
of  the  copula,  must  agree  in  case  with  the  subject,  or 
with  any  equivalent  of  the  subject  to  which  the  abridged 
expression  may  be  joined,  except  when  the  subject  is 
changed  to  the  possessive  or  is  wholly  dropped  from  the 
sentence:  it  then  remains  in  the  predicate  nominative 
absolute. 

Examples. — (1.)  In  the  uominative,  after  a  participle,  to  agree 

0  J8* 


210  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

with  its  subject ;  as^  "  You  beilig  the  captain,  I  must  obey,"  =  Since 
you  are  the  captain,  &c. 

(2.)  In  the  objective,  after  the  participle,  to  agree  with  an  equiva- 
lent of  the  subject;  as,  "Ananias  descended  with  the  elders,  and 
with  a  certain  orator  [who  was]  named  TertulluB;^^  who,  the  true 
subject,  being  dropped,  by  167,  3. 

(3.)  In  the  objective  case,  after  the  infinitive,  to  agree  with  the 
subject ;  as,  "  I  believed  him  to  be  a  traitor,"  =  I  believed  that  he  was 
a  traitor. 

(4.)  In  the  nominative  absolute,  after  the  participle,  preceded  by 
the  possessive  of  the  subject ;  as,  "  I  was  not  aware  of  his  being  a 
foreigner,"  =  I  was  not  aware  that  he  ivas  a  foreigner. 

(5. )  In  the  nominative  absolute,  after  the  participle  or  the  infinitive, 
the  subject  of  the  full  proposition  having  no  equivalent,  and  being 
wholly  dropped  from  the  sentence;  as,  "To  be  a  Jdng  is  to  be  a 
sovereign;"  "  Being  a  scholar  is  not  being  an  idler."  See  a  parallel 
construction  of  the  predicate  adjective  (isi,  20). 

Remark. — A  noun  or  a  pronoun  is  the  attribute  of  a  proposition  when  it  is 
used  with  the  copula,  or  any  copulative  verb  (S2,  9),  to  form  the  predicate. 
It  usually  denotes  the  same  person  or  thing  as  the  subject,  and  when  it 
denotes  a  person  it  agrees  with  the  subject  not  only  in  case,  but  in  gender  and 
number.  In  the  case  of  copulative  verbs,  the  predicate  seems  to  have  two 
attributes, — the  one  the  participle  or  attributive  part  of  the  verb,  and  the 
other  the  following  noun  or  adjective;  as,  "He  was  called  John;"  "The  boy 
was  made  side." 

2.  It,  used  in  a  vague  sense,  not  unlike  the  algebraic  symbol  for  an 
unknown  quantity,  is  made  the  subject  representing  a  noun  or  a  pro- 
noun as  attribute  in  any  number,  person,  or  gender ;  as,  "  It  is  //" 
"  It  is  they;"  "  It  is  James;"  "  It  is  she;"  "  It  is  clear  that  the  enemy 
has  crossed  the  river." 

3.  The  number  and  the  person  of  the  verb  are  affected  by  the 
subject,  and  not  by  the  predicate  noun. 

Ex. — Apples  are  fruit.  His  meat  was  (not  were)  locusts  and  wild 
honey. 

4.  After  the  copulative  verbs  regard,  consider,  reckon,  name,  and 
some  others,  the  connective  "as"  precedes  the  attribute  when  the 
verb  is  passive,  and  the  attributive  object  when  it  is  active,  to 
denote  the  capacity  in  which  the  subject  or  the  direct  object  is  to 
be  taken. 

Ex. — He  was  regarded  as  an  able  advocate,  -=  They  regarded  him  cw 
an  able  advocate. 


SYNTAX — ]SOUN   AS   ATTRIBUTE.  211 

5.  The  predicate  nominative  is  commonly  placed  after  the  verb, 
and  the  subject  nominative  before  it ;  but  in  questions,  both  direct 
and  indirect,  in  poetry,  and  in  sentences  arranged  for  rhetorical 
effect,  this  order  is  often  changed. 

Ex. — Is  it  If  Who  is  he?  And  I  thy  victim  now  remain.  I  was 
eyes  to  the  blind,  and/ee^  was  7  to  the  lame. 

6.  The  subject  may  be  a  noun,  and  the  attribute  a  clause ;  or  the 
subject  may  be  a  clause,  and  the  attribute  a  noun,  win  lie  do  it? 
is  the  question.     The  question  is,  Who  will  put  the  bell  upon  the 

cat?  (i63,  6.) 

Caution  I. — Never  use  the  objective  as  the  attribute  after  a  finite 
verb,  nor  the  nominative  after  an  infinitive  preceded  by  its  objective 
subject.  Say,  "  It  is  /,"— not  "  It  is  me;"  "  I  knew  it  to  be  him," — 
not  "  I  knew  it  to  be  he." 

Caution  II. — Avoid  constructions  in  which  the  thing  denoted  by  the 
subject  is  falsely  identified  by  the  attribute.  Say,  "  The  noun  James  is 
the  NAME  of  the  actor," — not  "  The  noun  James  is  the  actor." 


176.  Exercise. 

1.  Analyze  the  following  sentences,  and  parse  the  attributes  : — 
John  was  called  the  beloved  disciple.  Ehetoric,  logic,  and 
grammar  are  three  arts  that  should  always  walk  hand  in  hand. 
Embarrassed,  obscure,  and  feeble  sentences  are  generally,  if  not 
always,  the  result  of  embarrassed,  obscure,  and  feeble  thought. 
What  is  man,  that  thou  art  mindful  of  him  ?  He  returned  a  friend, 
who  came  a  foe.  It  still  remains  a  monument  of  his  greatness. 
Warsaw  was  the  capital  of  Poland.  Mecca  is  regarded  by  the 
Mohammedans  as  a  holy  city.  The  inhabitants  of  the  Arabian 
desert  are  styled  Bedouins. 

A  second  mistake  upon  the  subject  of  happiness  is,  that  it  is  to 
be  found  in  prosperity.  The  truth  is,  that  of  the  objects  of  human 
acquisition,  very  few  are,  beyond  a  certain  limit,  even  the  means  of 
happiness.  To  be  an  Englishman  in  London,  a  Frenchman  in 
Paris,  a  Spaniard  in  Madrid,  is  no  easy  matter ;  and  yet  it  is  neces- 
sary. I  did  not  dream  of  its  being  he.  Do  you  take  it  to  be  her? 
For  him  ever  to  become  a  correct  writer  is  out  of  the  question. 
Widowhood  is  the  state  of  beinpr  a  widow.  A  second  objection 
raised  against  our  Lord's  being  the  Son  oi  God  and  King  of  Israel, 
was  taken  from  his  mean  condition. 


212  ^ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Model  I. — "Talent  is  something,  but  tact  is  every 
thing." — London  Atlas, 

Analyze. — This  is  a  compound  sentence,  &c.     (See  Model  13.) 

Somethings  is  a  common  noun,  of  the  third,  sing.,  neut.,  and  in 
the  nom.  case,  being  used  as  the  attribute  of  the  proposition 
"  Talent  is  something,"  according  to  Rule  II.    (Repeat  it.) 

In  the  same  manner  parse  "  thing,"  in  the  second  clause. 

Model  II. — "  The  reason  is,  that  the  outward  signs  of 
a  dull  man  and  a  wise  man  are  the  same.'^ — Sydney  Smith, 

Analyze  as  in  Model,  162,  2. 

"That,"  in  this  case,  may  be  considered  as  joining  the  clause  as  a  de- 
pendent element  to  the  subject,  while  the  copula  joins  it  only  as  a.  predicated 
element.  If  the  clause  were  assumed  of  the  subject,  "that"  would  be  the 
only  connective.  Thus,  "  The  reason  that  the  outward  signs,"  Ac.  The  pre- 
position has  a  similar  connection  when  a  phrase  becomes  the  attribute ;  as, 
"The  boy  is  in  the  field."     Compare  "The  boy  in  the  field." 

Model  III. — "It  is  almost  as  hard  a  thing  to  be  a 
poet  in  despite  of  fortune,  as  it  is  in  despite  of  nature." — 
Cowley, 

This  is  a  complex  sentence,  consisting  of  one  principal  and  one 
subordinate  clause.  It  is  introduced  by  the  expletive  "  it,"  which 
is  disposed  of  as  in  Model  II.,  174.  Arranged  grammatically,  it 
stands,  "  To  be  a  poet  in  despite  of  fortune,  is  almost  as  hard  a 
thing  as  it  is  in  despite  of  nature."  The  logical  subject  is  "  to  be 
a  poet  in  despite  of  fortune ;"  the  logical  predicate  is  "  is  almost 
as  hard  a  thing  as  [to  be  a  poet]  is  in  despite  of  nature."  The 
grammatical  subject  is  "  to  be  a  poet,"  and  is  limited  by  the  com- 
plex phrase  "  in  despite  of  fortune."  This  is  an  adverbial  element, 
since  it  limits  not  "  poet,"  but  the  whole  idea,  "  to  be  a  poet."  The 
copula  is  "is,"  the  simple  attribute,  "thing;"  it  is  parsed  as  in 
Model  I.  The  attribute  "  thing"  is  limited  by  "  a,"  and  by  "  as 
hard  as  [to  be  a  poet]  is  in  despite  of  nature,"  a  complex  adjective 
element ;  it  is  of  the  first  class,  since  the  basis  is  "  hard ;"  it  is  com- 
plex, since  the  basis  is  limited  by  "  as  [to  be  a  poet]  is  in  despite  of 
nature,"  which  shows  a  comparison  between  two  things,  or  the  two 
conditions  of  being  a  poet,  and  would  be  a  comparison  of  equality^ 
but  for  the  effect  of  "  almost."  In  the  subordinate  clause,  "  as"  is 
the  connective,  and  joins  the  adverbial  clause  to  "  hard ;"  the  con- 


SYNTAX — PKONOUX.  213 

nection  is  strengthened  by  the  correlative  adverb  "  as"  in  the  princi- 
pal clause.  The  subordinate  clause  is  introduced  by  the  expletive 
"  it,"  and,  when  completed  and  arranged  grammatically,  stands,  "  [to 
be  a  poet]  in  despite  of  nature  is  [hard]."  This  clause  is  analyzed 
like  the  principal  clause. 

Poet  is  a  part  of  the  granimatical  subject  of  both  clauses :  "  to 
be"  is  not  the  grammatical  subject,  since  it  no  more  expresses  an 
idea  than  does  the  copula  (80,5).  The  simple  idea  is,  "to  be  a 
poet." 

Poet  is  a  common  noun,  third  pers.,  sing.,  masc,  nom.,  and  is 
used  as  the  attribute  of  an  abridged  proposition,  namely,  "  That 
one  should  be  a  poet  in  despite  of  fortune,  &c.,"  =  "  To  be  a  poet  in 
despite  of  fortune,  &c."  The  subject  "one"  is  entirely  dropped 
from  the  sentence  in  abridging  the  proposition ;  and  hence,  by  Eule 
II.,  1,  b,  "  poet"  is  in  the  predicate  nominative  absolute.  See  167, 
4,  Model  16,  Ex. 

2.  Construct,  analyze,  and  parse  examples  of  your  own  similar  to 
the  preceding. 


177.  Agreement  and  Construction  of  the  Pronoun. 

1.  Rule  III. — A  pronoun  must  agree  with  its  ante- 
cedent in  person,  number,  and  gender. 

Ex. — Those  who  are  most  consistent  are  not  more  unlike  to  others 
than  they  are  to  themselves. 

(a.)  A  pronoun  relating  to  a  collective  noun  in   the 

singular  is  put  in  the  neuter  singular  when   the  noun 

denotes  unity,  but  in   the  masculine  or  feminine   plural 

when  it  denotes  plurality, 

Ex. — A  civilized  people  has  no  right  to  violate  its  solemn  obligations 
because  the  other  party  is  uncivilized.  The  committee,  having  made 
their  report,  were  discharged. 

{b)  A  pronoun  relating  to  an  antecedent  consisting  of 
coordinate  terms,  agrees  with  it,  by  Rule  XII.  (See,  also, 
193,  1,  a,  6,  &c.) 

2.  Interrogative  pronouns  commonly  refer  to  objects  unknown  to 
the  speaker ;  and  hence  the  person,  number,  and  gender  must  b© 
assumed  till  the  person  or  thing  inquired  for  becomes  known. 


214  ENGLISH   GEAMMAR. 

Although  the  pronoun  may  not  agree  with  the  true  antecedent,  it  doe? 
agree,  by  rule,  with  the  assumed;  and  consistency  should  be  preserved  in 
every  reference  to  it.  The  following  sentence  is  wrong: — "Who  was  not 
charmed  with  the  music  they  heard  ?"  Was  should  be  changed  to  were,  or  they 
to  he.  Again,  a  pronoun  relating  to  a  singular  antecedent  limited  by  Tvau?/  a 
is  commonly  put  in  the  plural ;  as,  "  I  have  heard  mani/  an  act  of  devotion  in 
my  life,  had  Heaven  vouchsafed  me  grace  to  profit  by  thevi." — Scott. 

3.  The  pronoun  it  is  used, — 

{a.)  Without  an  antecedent, — (1)  when  employed  ?.s  in  173,  4; 
(2)  as  an  expletive. 

Ex. — It  is  good  for  me  to  be  afflicted.     Come  trip  it  as  you  go. 

(b.)  When  the  antecedent  is  a  young  child  or  an  animal,  the  sex  of 
which  is  disregarded. 

Ex. — The  true  friend  of  the  child  is  he  who  regards  its  future  well' 
being.  The  raccoon  feeds  chiefly  by  night,  keeping  in  its  hole  during 
the  day. 

4.  A  pronoun  sometimes  refers  (apparently  contrary  to  the  gene- 
ral rule)  to  a  noun  taken  from  its  ordinary  signification. 

Ex. — We  studied  Woodhridge^s  Elements  of  Geography  on  its  first  ap- 
pearance before  the  public.  When  we  say  books  is  a  noun,  we  classify  it, 
— that  is,  the  word, — not  the  objects  themselves.  Herod,  wMch  (not  who) 
is  another  name  for  cruelty. 

5.  The  English  language  being  destitute  of  a  pronoun  of  the 
third  person,  which  may  apply  equally  to  either  sex,  an  erroneous 
use  of  they,  referring  to  persofi,  any  one,  or  some  one,  has  been 
adopted  even  by  respectable  writers  to  conceal  the  gender,  or  to 
avoid  an  awkward  use  of  he  or  she. 

Thus :  "  If  any  one  would  test  these  rules  for  the  preservation  of  health, 
they  {he  or  she)  must  persevere  in  all  states  of  the  weather."  The  want  of 
such  a  pronoun  is  still  more  apparent  when  the  speaker  has  a  definite  person 
before  his  mind  and  wishes  to  conceal  the  gender :  thus,  "  The  person  who 
gave  me  this  information  desired  me  to  conceal name."  When  the  per- 
son referred  to  belongs  to  an  assemblage  known  to  be  composed  wholly  of 
males  or  wholly  of  females,  the  masculine  or  feminine  pronoun  should  be 
used  accordingly.  But  when  the  person  belongs  to  an  assemblage  of  males 
and  females,  usage  has  sanctioned  the  employment  of  a  masculine  pronoun : 
thus,  '*  Is  any  among  you  afflicted  ?  let  him  (not  them, — not  her)  pray." 

6.  When  things  or  animals  are  personified,  they  should  be  repre- 
sented as  persons  by  the  pronouns  employed. 

Ex. — Next  Anger  rushed,  his  eyes  on  fire.  The  wolf  who  from  the 
nightly  fold  fierce  drags  the  bleating  prev. 


SYNTAX — PEOXOUN.  215 

7.  The  pronoun  usually  follows  its  antecedent ;  but  sometimes  it 
is  placed  first. 

Ex. — Hark !  they  whisper ;  angels  say. 

8.  Relative  and  interrogative  pronouns  are  usually  placed  at  the 
beginning  of  their  clauses,  even  though  the  order  of  construction 
would  assign  them  some  other  position. 

Ex. — Paternus  had  but  one  son,  whom  he  educated  himself. 

9.  The  relative  in  the  objective  is  sometimes  omitted. 
Ex. — Here  is  the  present  [which]  he  gave  me. 

The  antecedent  is  not  unfrequently  omitted. 
Ex. — [He]  Who  steals  my  purse  steals  trash. 

The  antecedent  is  sometimes  a  part  of  a  sentence,  and  sometimes 
a  possessive. 

Ex. — The  boy  closed  the  blinds,  which  darkened  the  room.  Supreme 
authority,  strictly  speaking,  is  only  His  who  created* the  universe. 

10.  The  construction  of  the  pronoun  is  independent  of  its  ante- 
cedent, and  is  like  that  of  the  noun  in  similar  relations. 

It  may  be, — 

In  the  nominative  case,  as  subject  of  a  finite  verb,  nominative  absolute, 
possessive  case,  or  in  the  objective  case,  governed  by  a  transitive  verb  or  by  a 
preposition ;  as,  "  They  tcho  speak."  "  We  ordered  the  horses  to  be  harnessed, 
which  being  done,  we  commenced  our  journey."  "He  hastened  to  the  palace 
of  his  sovereign,  into  whose  presence  his  hoary  locks  and  mournful  visage 
soon  obtained  admission."  "  The  person  whom  I  saw."  "  Whoin  did  you 
take  him  to  be  ?"  "  The  man  tohom  they  call  the  janitor."  "  This  is  the  rule 
to  which  we  called  his  attention." 

Remark. — In  disposing  of  a  personal  pronoun,  two  rules  should  be  given, 
— one  for  its  agreement,  and  one  for  its  construction ;  in  disposing  of  a  relative, 
we  should  add  to  these  the  rule  for  it  as  a  connective ;  and  in  case  of  what, 
whatever,  or  whatsoever,  still  another,  to  explain  its  use  as  an  adjective. 

11.  The  relative  which  formerly  referred  as  well  to  persons  as 
to  things. 

Ex. — Our  Father  which  art  in  heaven. 

It  was  sometimes  preceded  by  the  definite  article ;  as,  "  In  the  which  ye 
also  walked  sometime." — Bible.  "When  used  interrogatively,  which  may  refer 
to  persons ;  as,  "  Which  of  the  two  was  the  wiser  man  ?" 

12.  The  relative  pronoun  is,— 

(a.)  Restrictive,  when  it  introduces  a  clause  which  restricts  like 
an  adjective  the  general  idea  denoted  by  the  antecedent. 


216  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Ex. — The  coffee  which  grows  in  Java  =  Java  coffee  =  is  of  an  excel- 
lent quality. 

{b.)  Explanatory,  when  it  simply  resumes  the  idea  expressed  by 
the  antecedent,  either  in  its  full  extent  or  as  previously  defined, 
and  adds  another  thought. 

Ex. — He  gave  me  a  book,  which  he  requested  me  to  read,  =  He  gave 
me  a  book,  and  he  requested  me  to  read  it. 

Remark. — When  used  restrictively,  it  often  has,  prefixed  to  the  antecedent, 
a  correlative,  such  as  the,  this,  that,  these,  those;  the  adjective  clause  becomes 
a  necessary  addition  to  the  antecedent,  to  complete  the  limitation  intimated 
by  these  words.  When  used  in  an  explanatory  way,  the  relative  introduces 
an  additional  proposition,  and  is  equivalent  to  and  he,  and  she,  and  it,  and 
they. 

That,  what,  and  as  are  always  used  restrictively.  Who  and  which  may  be 
either  restrictive  or  explanatory. 

13.  When  the  relative  is  goverijed  by  a  preposition,  it  is  gene- 
rally best  to  place  .the  latter  at  the  beginning  of  the  clause. 

Ex. — "This  is  the  subject  to  which  he  alluded," — not  "which  he 
alluded  to." 

But  when  the  relative  that  is  thus  governed,  the  preposition  is  always 
placed  at  the  end ;  as,  "  Here  is  the  last  bridge  that  we  shall  come  to."  It  ia 
better  not  to  employ  that  when  the  governing  preposition  is  understood :  yet 
sometimes  it  is  so  used;  as,  "In  the  day  that  thou  eatest  thereof,  thou  shalt 
surely  die." 

14.  The  compound  relatives  whoever,  whoso,  whosoever,  whichever, 
whichsoever,  whatever,  and  whatsoever,  show  that  the  antecedent — 

(1.)  Is  taken  nniversaiiy, — that  is,  in  the  full  extent  of  its  appli- 
cation. 

Ex. —  Whoever  seeks  shall  find,  =  Any  one  who  seeks  shall  find. 

(2.)  Is  to  be  understood,  especially  in  the  compounds  of  who 
and  what;  and  hence  these  words  must  either  have  a  double  con- 
struction, or  an  antecedent  must  be  supplied. 

Ex. — The  soldiers  made  proclamation  that  they  would  sell  the  empire 
to  whoever  [any  one  who']  would  purchase  it  at  the  highest  price. 

15.  The  words  what,  whatever,  and  whatsoever  combine  in  one 
word  both  the  relative  and  its  correlative. 

Remark. — They  are  equivalent  to  the,  this,  that,  these,  or  those  —  which :  hence 
they  perform  the  oflBce  of  a  limiting  adjective,  and  at  the  same  time  that  of  a 
relative  pronoun ;  and  hence,  too,  unlike  all  other  relative  pronouns,  they  are 
placed  before  the  antecedent  (except  as  in  17,  below)  when  expressed  (75,  5, 
and  76,  3).     Sometimes  the  simple  tchat  is  separated  from  the  affix  by  the 


SYNTAX — PRONOUN.  217 

antecedent;  as,  "Whatsoever  plague,  lohatsoever  sickness,  there  may  be,  tvJiut 
prayer  and  supplication  soeve)'  be  made  by  any  man."— 1  Kings  viii.  37,  38. 
(See  77,  5,  6,  7.) 

16.  Whoever,  whatever,  whichever,  whiclisoever,  and  whatsoever  are 
often  used  to  introduce  and  connect  an  adversative  subordinate 
clause.   (See  Anal.  327,  b.) 

Ex. — Whatever  you  may  say,  he  persists  in  doing  it. 

In  this  case  an  adversative  preposition  is  understood  to  govern  the  ante- 
cedent; as,  "]Vhatever  useful  or  engaging  endowments  we  possess,  virtue 
is  requisite  in  order  to  their  shining  with  proper  lustre,"  =  Nottcithstanding  all 
those  useful  or  engaging  endowments  which  we  possess,  &c.  Here  endotoments 
is  governed  by  notwithstanding,  and  tchich  by  possess.  It  is  an  error  to  say, 
as  some  do,  that  whatever,  here,  is  simply  an  adjective;  for  then  we  should 
have  no  relative  word  to  connect  the  clauses.  In  like  manner  we  have 
"  What  time  I  am  afraid,  I  will  trust  in  thee,"  =  J.^  what  time,  <fcc. 

17.  Whatever  and  whatsoever  are  often  used  to  express  universality 
(15)  emphatically. 

Ex. — I  have  no  confidence  whatever  in  the  proposed  measure. 

Here,  as  in  comparisons  after  than  or  as,  the  subject  or  the  attribute  of 
the  subordinate  clause  being  given,  the  rest  is  to  be  supplied;  as,  "I  have 
no  confidence  whatever  [it  may  be]  in  the  proposed  measure."  It  is  an  error 
here  to  suppose  that  whatever  is  a  mere  adjective,  or  is  like  the  emphatic  per- 
sonal pronoun  himself,  as  in  the  following  : — "  The  declarations  contained  in 
them  [the  Scriptures]  rest  on  the  authority  of  God  himself;  and  there  can  be 
no  appeal  from  them  to  any  authority  rohatsoever"  [that  authority  may  be]. 
Care  should  be  taken,  in  these  difiicult  constructions,  not  to  make  a  pleo- 
nastic use  of  a  personal  pronoun  or  other  word.  The  following  sentence  is 
faulty : — "  Whatsoever  he  saith  unto  you,  do  it;"  omit  it. 

18.  When  interrogative  clauses  are  quoted  indirectly  (i63,  7), 
the  interrogative  pronoun  is  used  indefinitely,  having  only  an 
implied  antecedent  (2,  above). 

Ex. —  What  shall  I  do  ?     I  know  not  what  I  shall  do. 

Here  the  whole  clause  is  the  object  of  knoic,  and  what  of  shall  do.  When 
such  clauses  are  abridged, ^-thus,  "I  know  not  what  to  do," — the  whole  ex- 
pression "  what  to  do"  is  the  double  object  of  kno\c,  and  what  is  the  object  of 
"to  do."     So,  "I  know  not  whom  to  send." 

19.  The  relative  that  is  always  restrictive,  and  should  be  used, — 
(1.)  After  the  interrogative  who. 

Ex. —  Who  thai  marks  the  fire  still  sparkling  in  each  eye,  &c. 
(2.)  After  an  adjective  in  the  superlative  degree. 

Ex. — Pie  was  the  last  that  left. 

19 


218  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

(3.)  After  very,  all,  same. 

Ex. — This  is  the  very  book  that  I  want.  Is  not  this  all  that  you  ask  > 
He  is  the  same  person  that  I  took  him  to  be. 

(4.)  When  the  relative  refers  to  an  antecedent  denoting  both 
persons  and  things. 

Ex. — Here  are  the  persons  and  papers  that  were  sent  for. 

20.  Instead  of  in  which,  by  which,  of  which,  &c.,  the  equivalent 
relative  adverbs  where,  when,  whereby,  whereof,  &c.  are  used,  like 
the  pronoun,  to  join  an  adjective  clause  to  its  antecedent. 

Ex. — We  discovered  the  place  ivhere  the  goods  had  been  concealed. 

Caution  I. — Avoid  the  use  of  a  noun  and  a  pronoun  as  subject  or 
object  of  the  same  verb,  unless  great  emphasis  is  required.  Say,  "  The 
boy  did  it,"— not  "  The  boy  he  did  it." 

Caution  II. — Avoid  the  use  of  a  plural  pronoun  having  a  singular 
antecedent.    Say,  "  Let  every  one  attend  to  his  (not  their)  work." 

Caution  III. — In  the  use  of  a  pronoun,  avoid  ambiguity  in  its 
reference  to  an  antecederit.  Say,  "A  boy  who  deceives  his  father  will 
regret  it," — not  "  If  a  boy  deceives  his  father,  he  will  regret  it." 

Caution  IV. — In  arranging  nouns  or  pronouns  of  different  per- 
sons, a  pronoun  of  the  second  person  should  be  placed  before  one  of  the 
first  or  the  third;  as,  "  You  and  he  and  /," — not  "  /and  he  and  t/ow." 

Yet,  in  confessing  a  fault,  it  is  more  generous  for  the  speaker  to  put  him- 
self first. 

Caution  V. — Avoid  the  use  of  who  when  speaking  of  animals 
and  inanimate  objects,  and  of  which  when  speaking  of  persons.  Say, 
"The  cat  which  mews," — not  ^^who  mew^."  *'The  stranger  who 
came," — not  "  The  stranger  which  came." 

Caution  VI. — Avoid  a  change  of  number,  or  a  change  of  pro- 
nouns, when  reference  is  made  to  the  same  antecedent  in  the  same  sentence. 
Say,  "  I  know  you,  and  I  love  you  too," — not  "  I  know  thee,  and  I 
love  you  too." 

Caution  YH.-^— A  pronoun  relating  to  an  antecedent  consisting  of  co- 
ordinate terms  of  different  persons  or  genders,  should  agree  with  the  first 
■person  rather  than  the  second  or  the  third,  and  with  the  second  rather 
than  the  third,  and  with  the  masculine  gender  rather  than  the  feminine. 
Say,  "  You  and  Charles  are  learning  your  lesson," — not "  their  lesson." 
"  If  a  man  smite  the  eye  of  his  servant,  or  the  eye  of  his  maid,  that 
it  perish,  he  shall  let  him  [not  h^r,  nor  them^  go  free  for  his  eye's 
^ike."~Bibk. 


SYNTAX — PKONOUN.  219 


178.  Exercise. 

1.  Analyze  the  sentences,  and  parse  the  pronouns,  in  the  following 
examples : — 

Ye,  therefore,  who  love  mercy,  teach  your  sons  to  love  it  too. 
Other  sheep  I  have,  which  are  not  of  this  fold.  This  is  the  friend 
of  whom  I  spoke.  He  who  had  no  mercy  upon  others  is  now  re- 
duced to  a  condition  which  may  excite  the  pity  of  his  most  im- 
placable enemy.  At  sea,  every  thing  that  breaks  the  monotony  of 
the  surrounding  expanse  attracts  attention.  That  life  is  long 
which  answers  life's  great  end.  He  is  the  friend  whose  arrival  is 
daily  expected.  The  board  of  health  have  published  their  report. 
The  committee,  who  w^ere  divided  in  opinion,  will  discuss  the  ques- 
tion more  fully  at  their  next  meeting.  It  is  the  undaunted  bravery 
and  the  wild  impetuosity  of  the  Zouaves  that  render  their  charges 
so  formidable.  All  this  took  place  when  the  vice  and  ignorance 
which  the  old  tyranny  had  generated,  threatened  the  new  freedom 
with  destruction.  One  or  the  other  must  relinquish  his  claim. 
Either  Jane  or  Julia  will  perform  her  task. 

Model  I. — "Hastings  advanced  to  the  bar  and  bent 
his  knee." — MacauJay, 

Analyze  as  in  Model  14  (166),  and  parse  Ms  thus : — 

His  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  third  person,  singular  number, 
masculine  gender,  according  to  Eule  III.  (repeat  it);  in  the 
possessive  case,  limiting  "  knee."     Rule  VII. 

Model  II. 
^'  Thus  urged  the  chief;  a  generous  troop  appears, 
Who  spread  their  bucklers,  and  advance  their  spears." 

Pope. 

Let  the  learner  analyze  this  compound  sentence,  and  parse  their  as  in  tlia 
preceding  model,  giving  as  a  rule  177,  1,  a. 

Who  is  a  relative  pronoun ;  as  a  pronoun  it  has  troop  for  its  ante- 
cedent, a  collective  noun  in  the  singular  denoting  plurality,  and  is 
of  the  third  person,  plural  number,  masculine  gender,  by  176,  1,  a, 
and  in  the  nominative  case,  by  Eule  I. 

Observe  that  troop  first  denotes  nnity,  since  appears  is  singular ;  and  then 
it  denotes  plumliti/,  as  shown  by  who  and  their. 


220  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Model  III. — "  I  wish,  after  all  I  have  said  about  mi 
and  humor,  I  could  satisfy  myself  of  their  good  effects 
upon  the  character  and  disposition. '^ — Sidney  Smith. 

This  is  a  complex  declarative  sentence,  of  which  /  is  the  subject  and  wish 
the  predicate  of  the  principal  clause.  Let  the  learner  point  out  all  the  modi- 
fications of  the  predicate,  and  parse  the  pronouns. 

Their  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  third  person,  plural  number, 
neuter  gender,  and  agrees  with  its  antecedent  "wit  and  humor," 
whose  coordinate  terms  are  taken  conjointly,  by  177, 1,  b,  or  Eule 
XII.,  and  is  in  the  possessive  case,  by  Eule  VIL 

179.  Tlie  Yerb  as  Predicate. 

1.  Rule  rV. — The  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject  in 
person  and  number. 

Ex. — I  am.     Thou  art  sitting.     We  have  come. 

(a.)  A  verb   agreeing  with  a  collective   noun  in  the 

singular  is  put  in  the  singular  when  the  noun  denotes 

unity  J  but  in  the  plural  when  it  denotes  plurality. 

Ex. — A  detachment  of  two  thousand  men  was  sent  to  support  the  left 
wing.     The  council  were  divided  in  their  opinion. 

(6.)  A  verb  agreeing  with  a  subject  consisting  of  coordi- 
nate terms,  is  singular  or  plural,  according  to  Rule  XII. 
(See  195,  1,  a,  Z),  c.) 

To  the  general  rule  that  the  verb  must  agree  in  number  and  person  with 
any  subject,  according  as  it  denotes  unity  or  plurality  of  idea,  there  are,  pro- 
perly, no  exceptions.  In  the  following  examples,  "  Ten  head  o.  cattle  were 
feeding  ,•"  "  Five  yoke  of  oxen  were  ploughing ;"  "  Fifty  sail  of  vessels  were 
seen,"  the  rule  177,  1,  a,  is  properly  applicable.  So,  in  case  of  the  apparent 
exception  in  which  the  title  of  a  book  is  plural,  the  mind  is  fixed  upon  the 
treatise  itself  as  one  thing :  thus,  "  Wayland's  Elements  of  Political  Economy 
locw  published  in  1837."  Here  "Elements  of  Political  Economy"  is  the 
game  as  ''Treatise  upon  the  Elements,"  <fcc.  So,  again,  a,  phrase  or  a  clause 
(173,  1,  a)  used  as  a  subject  is  to  be  regarded  as  one  thing,  requiring  the  verb 
to  be  in  the  third  person  singular.  But  when  a  phrase  expressive  of  a  combi- 
nation of  numbers  is  regarded  as  denoting  separate  units  rather  than  a  single 
number,  the  verb  should  be  plural ;  as,  "  Three  times  three  are  nine." 

2.  The  nominative  and  the  verb  after  many  a  or  7nany  an  should 
be  HI  the  singular  number. 


SYNTAX — VERB  AS  PREDICATE.         221 

Ex. — Full  many  a  flower  is  born  to  blush  unseen. 

3.  The  subject  of  verbs  in  the  imperative  mode  is  thou,  or  ye  or 
you,  and  is  usually  omitted. 

The  subject  is  often  to  be  supplied  after  comparisons  with  than 
or  as.     (See  173,  3.) 

Ex. — John  has  more  fruit  than  \xvliat  =  that  which']  can  be  gathered 
in  a  week.     It  is  as  broad  as  [it  is]  long. 

4.  In  such  inverted  interrogative  sentences  as,  Who  am  If  Who 
ishef  Who  are  you?  What  am  If  Wio  art  thou  f  Is  it  If  Is  it  he f 
Is  it  thouf  the  attribute  should  not  be  taken  for  the  subject,  which 
alone  controls  the  person  and  number  of  the  verb. 

Caution  I. — Avoid  all  such  ungrammatical  expressions  as,  "  Says 
/;"  ''ThinU  /;"  ''Thinks  says  J/"  ''I hears  him,''  &c. 

Cautiox  II. — Never  use  a  plural  verb  with  a  singular  subject, 
though  the  htter  be  modified  by  a  noun  in  the  plural.  Say,  "  Each  of 
his  brothers  is  (not  are)  well." 

Caution  III. — Be  carefidnot  to  use  the  WRONG  verb,  as,  set  for 
sit,  lay  for  lie,  come /or  go:  or  the  WRONG  FORM,  as,  done /or  did, 
wrote /or  -written,  &c. ;  or  the  WRONG  TENSE,  as,  see  for  saw,  give 
for  gave;  or  IMPROPER  CONTRACTIONS,  as,  ain't /or  are  not,  &C. 


180.  Exercise. 

1.  Analyze  and  parse  the  following  examples: — 

The  Connecticut  River  was  first  explored,  as  far  as  Hartford,  by 
Adrian  Block.  The  sun  was  setting  upon  one  of  the  rich,  glassy 
glades  of  the  forest.  Those  who  have  ever  witnessed  the  spectacle 
of  the  launching  of  a  ship  of  the  line,  will  perhaps  forgive  me  for 
adding  this  to  the  examples  of  the  sublime  objects  of  artificial  life. 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella  were  seated,  with  their  son.  Prince  John, 
under  a  superb  canopy.  The  nobility  were  haughty  and  exacting. 
The  people  take  the  matter  into  their  own  hands.  Society  is  not 
always  answerable  for  the  conduct  of  its  members. 

Model  I. — "After  a  brief  interval,  the  sovereigns 
requested  of  Columbus  a  recital  of  his  adventures.''— 
Prescott. 

Analyze  according  to  Model  (162,  3,  4),  and  parse  requested  thus : — 

Requested  is  a  regular  transitive  verb ;  principal  parts, ~x>re^.  re- 

19* 


222  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

quest,  past  requested,  past  participle  requested;  indicative  mode,  past 
tense,  third  person,  plural  number,  and  agrees  with  "  sovereigns," 
according  to  Eule  IV.     (Repeat  it.) 

Model  II. — "Why  do  the  heathen  rage,  and  the 
people  imagine  a  vain  thing  ?'' — Bible, 

This  is  a  compound  interrogative  sentence,  consisting  of  two  coordinate 
clauses  joined  by  "and."    Analyze  them  separately. 

Bo  rage  is  a  regular  intransitive  verb,  emphatic  form,  indicative 
mode,  present  tense,  third  person,  plural  number,  and  agrees  with 
"  heathen,"  according  to  Rule  IV.,  a.  In  the  same  way  parse  "  do 
imagine." 

Model  III. — "Gold,  silver,  and  copper  abound  in 
South  America." 

Follow  Model  14  (166,  1),  and  parse  abound  thus : — 

Abound  is  a  regular  intransitive  verb,  indicative  mode,  present 
tense,  third  person,  plural  number,  and  agrees  with  its  compound 
subject,  according  to  Rule  IV.,  b,  or  Rule  XII. 

2.  Construct  similar  examples  of  your  own, 

181.  The  Adjective  as  Modifier  and  as  Predicate. 

1.  Rule  V. — An  adjective  or  a  participle  must  belong 
to  some  noun  or  pronoun. 

Ex. — The  guilty  man ;  the  man  was  guilty. 

(a.)  An  adjective  or  a  participle  used  as  the  ati7%iite  of 

a  proposition,  belongs  to  the  subject. 

Ex. — The  tree  is  tall.  To  see  the  sun  is  pleasant.  Where  the  funds 
will  be  obtained  is  doubtful. 

(b.)  An  adjective  or  a  participle  used  to  modify  a  noun, 
belongs  to  the  noun  which  it  modifies. 

Ex. — An  upright  judge.     Five  boxes.     The  good  old  man. 

(c.)  Adjectives  denoting  number  agree  in  number  with 
the  nouns  they  limit. 

Ex. — This  book.     These  trees.     Ten  men. 

(d)  The  article  a  or  an  belongs  to  nouns  in  the  singular 


SYNTAX — ADJECTIVE   AS  PREDICATE.  223 

number,  except  before  few j  hundred^  or  thousand;  and  thej 
to  nouns  either  singular  or  plural. 

Ex. — J.  man.    ^w  hour.     TAe  desk.     2%e  pens.    A  few  men. 

2.  The  appropriate  use  of  the  adjective  is  to  restrict  the  applica- 
tion of  a  noun. 

The  adjective  thus  used  is  always  a  dependent  term,  having  the  restricted 
noun  as  its  principal. 

3.  A  noun  may  be  restricted  or  limited  in  its  application, — 

(1.)  Without  affecting  any  of  its  properties;  as,  ^^Ttvo  men." 
"These  hooks." 

(2.)  By  designating  some  property  or  quality;  as,  "Good  men." 
"Industrious  boys." 

(3.)  By  identifying  it;  as,  "Paul  the  Apostle."  "Peter  the 
Hermit." 

(4.)  By  representing  it  as  an  object  ^ossessec?/  as,  "i>awc£'s  harp." 

The  first  two  limitations  are  effected  by  adjectives;  the  last  two,  by  nouna 
ov pronouns  performing  the  office  of  the  adjective. 

4.  Any  word,  or  group  of  words,  employed  to  limit  a  noim,  is  an 
adjective  element;  that  is,  it  is  of  the  nature  of  an  adjective. 

Ex. — Industrious  men.     Men  of  industry.    Men  who  are  industrious. 

5.  Limiting  adjectives,  when  used  in  connection  with  qualifying, 
are  generally  placed  first. 

Ex. — The  old  man.     This  valuable  hint.     Ten  small  trees. 

When  two  limiting  adjectives  are  used,  one  of  which  is  an  article,  the  latter 
is  usually  placed  first;  as,  "The  ten  commandments."  But  after  many,  such, 
all,  what,  and  both,  the  article  stands  next  to  the  noun;  so,  also,  after  adjec- 
tives preceded  by  too,  so,  as,  or  hoio;  as,  "Ifani/  a  man."  "Such  a  man." 
*'All  the  boys.  ''What  a  boy."  "Both  the  girls."  "Too  great,  as  great,  so 
great,  hoio  great,  a  man."     "Half  a  dollar." 

6.  The  article  should  be, — 

(1.)  Omitted, — [a.)  Before  proper  nouns,  abstract  nouns,  and 
nouns  denoting  substance  or  material,  when  used  in  their  general 
signification. 

Ex. — Patience  is  a  Christian  virtue.  Gold  abounds  in  Colorado. 
Wood  is  becoming  scarce. 

[b.)  Before  the  participle  used  as  a  noun,  with  the  limitations  of 
the  verb. 

Ex. — The  ancients  erred  in  siipposing  the  earth  a  vast  plane. 


224  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

(c.)  Before  a  common  noun  used  in  the  full  extent  of  its  signifi- 
cation. 

Ex. — Man  is  mortal.  Woman  is  justly  appreciated  only  in  civilized 
countries.    The  lizard  is  a  kind  of  reptile. 

Remark. — Contrary  to  this  rule,  the  is  often  used  before  a  noun  in  the 
singular  to  denote  the  tchole  class,  and  must  be  distinguished  from  the  cases 
in  which  the  points  out  an  individual  object,  by  a  careful  attention  to  the  con- 
nection. Thus,  we  have  the  horse,  the  bee,  the  oak,  the  ash,  the  dahlia.  The 
horse  is  a  noble  animal.  The  horse  is  lame.  Go  to  the  ant,  thou  sluggard. 
The  ant  was  drowned  in  the  cup. 

{d.)  Before  a  noun  denoting  a  mere  title,  or  a  name  used  as  a 
word. 

Ex. — Ye  call  me  Master  and  Lord.  Acorn  is  derived  from  ac,  oak, 
and  corn,  grain. 

(e.)  Before  any  common  noun  already  limited  by  one  of  the 
definitives  any,  each,  either,  every,  much,  neither,  no  or  none,  some^ 
this,  that,  these,  or  those,  or  by  any  other  words  which  make  its 
meaning  sufficiently  definite. 

(2.)  Inserted, — {a.)  Before  a  common  noun  used  to  denote  an 
individual  object,  or  any  number  of  individual  objects  definitely  re- 
ferred to. 

Ex. — The  rose  which  blooms  by  the  wall. 

(b.)  Before  adjectives  used  as  nouns. 

Ex. — None  but  the  brave  deserves  the  fair. 

(c.)  'B^ioTQ  participles  used  wholly  as  nouns. 

Ex. — For  the  edifying  of  the  church. 

[d.)  Before  joroper  nouns  in  the  plural,  abstract  nouns,  and  nouns 
denoting  substance  or  material  when  used  with  specific  reference  to 
an  individual  example  (6,  1,  a,  above). 

Ex. — Tlie  Websters.  The  twelve  Caesars.  Ye  have  heard  of  the 
patience  of  Job.     The  wood  is  sufficiently  dry. 

7.  The  article,  if  required  at  all  by  the  preceding  rules,  should, — 

(1.)  Be  repeated, — [a.)  Before  each  noun  of  a  coordinate  combi- 
nation, when  the  objects,  by  some  correspondence  or  contrast,  or  by 
some  limitation  not  common  to  all,  are  specially  distinguished. 

Ex. — The  soldiers  did  not  inquire  for  the  number,  but  the  place,  of  the 
enemy. 

Here  the  contrast  requires  the  repetition  of  the  article. 


SYNTAX — ADJECTIVE   AS   PREDICATE.  225 

Ex. — England,  during  the  interval  between  the  Protectorate  and  tha 
restoration  of  the  Stuarts,  was  virtually  governed  by  General  Monk. 

Here  the  omission  of  the  before  restoration  would  refer  the  Protectorate  and 
the  restoration  alike  to  the  Stuarts. 

(6.)  Before  each  part  of  a  coordinate  combination  employed  as 
an  adjective  element  (i66, 1,  Ex.),  when  the  parts  apply  to  objects 
individually  different,  yet  of  the  same  name. 

Ex. — "The  northern  and  the  southern  boundary," — two  very  different 
boundaries.  "A  Bancroft's,  a  Lossing's,  and  a  Goodrich's  history," — three 
different  books.  "  We  had  pleasant  companions,  an  Englishman,  a  Scotch- 
man, and  a  German," — each  a  companion,  but  three  men. 

Eemakk. — By  a  common  usage,  justified  by  standard  authority,  the  article 
may  be  placed  before  the  first  adjective  only,  when  the  noun  is  put  in  the 
plural  at  the  end  of  the  series  j  as,  ''The  first,  second,  and  third  regiments." 
It  is  here  supposed  that  the  hearer  will  distribute  the  adjectives  properly. 
The  rule  just  given,  though  it  sometimes  renders  the  construction  somewhat 
formal,  secures  precision  in  the  application  of  the  adjectives;  while  the  omission 
of  the  article  leaves  their  application  doubtful,  and  hence  sometimes  endangers 
the  perspicuity  of  the  sentence. 

(2.)  Not  be  repeated, — {a.)  Before  any  of  the  foregoing  combi- 
nations when  the  nouns,  as  in  (a),  do  not  express  a  correspondence 
or  a  contrast,  or  have  a  common  limitation,  or  the  modifiers,  as  in 
{b),  belong  to  a  common  object. 

Ex. — "The  men,  women,  andchildrenof  the  party  suffered  alike," — each 
being  of  the  party.  "Give  me  the  ripe  red  and  mellow  peaches," — each 
being  ripe,  red,  and  mellow.  "  He  bought  a  Wheeler  and  Wilson's  sewing- 
machine," — one  machine  of  two  patentees.  "  Dr.  Kane,  the  scholar,  natu- 
ralist, and  explorer," — one  man  with  three  characteristics. 

[b.)  Before  the  second  term  of  a  comparison,  where  both  refer  to 
the  same  person  or  thing. 

Ex. — He  was  a  better  speaker  than  writer. 

8.  Many,  followed  by  a  {an),  though  imj^lying pluralitT/,  is  followed 
by  a  noun  in  the  singular. 

Ex. — Many  a  man,  =  Many  men. 

9.  When  two  numerals  precede  a  noun,  one  singular  and  the 
other  plural,  the  plural  should  generally  be  placed  next  to  the  noun. 

Ex.—"  The  first  two  lines,"— not  "  The  two  first  lines." 

In  such  expressions  as,  "Five  yoke  of  oxen,"  "Ten  head  of  cattle,"  ''Fifty 
«nil  of  vessels  "  the  plural  adjective  belongs  to  a  noun  in  the  singular,  but  used 
collectively  to  convey  the  idea  of  plurality. 
P 


226  e:nglish  grammar. 

10.  When  objects  are  contrasted,  that  refers  to  the  first  and  this 
to  the  last  mentioned. 

Ex. — Wealth  and  poverty  are  both  temptations :  that  tends  to  excite 
pride ;  this,  discontent. 

11.  By  a  peculiar  use,  the  —  the,  primarily  articles,  belonging  to 
some  noun  understood,  2^ part,  are  used  with  comparatives,  to  denote 
proportionate  equality,  and  are  to  be  regarded  as  conjunctive 
adverbs  used  to  join  two  clauses. 

Ex. — The  more  I  see  it,  the  better  I  like  it. 

12.  The  adjective  is  often  used  as  a  noun,  the  noun  to  which  it 
belongs  being  understood. 

Ex. — The  good  are  respected. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  noun  is  often  used  as  an  adjective. 
Ex. — Gold  heads. 

13.  One  adjective  often  limits  the  complex  idea  expressed  by 
another  adjective  and  a  noun. 

Ex. — Two  old  horses. 

So,  again,  in  combined  numbers,  and  in  some  few  other  cases, 
one  adjective  limits  another. 

Ex. — Five  hundred  thousand.     A  bright  red  apple. 

14.  The  predicate  adjective  following  copulative  verbs  generally 
denotes  some  property  of  the  subject,  either  already  possessed  by  it, 
or  acquired  through  the  action  of  the  verb. 

Ex. — The  boy  was  made  sick.  The  bread  was  baked  brown.  The 
fruit  tastes  sweet. 

15.  A  participle,  an  adjective,  or  even  a  noun,  in  the  predicate, 
yet  referring  to  the  subject,  is  often  used  somewhat  adverbially  to 
express  an  accompanying  action.  Although  it  does  not  show  the 
manner  of  the  action,  it  shows  how  or  with  what  it  is  accompanied. 

Ex. — The  Son  of  man  came  eating  and  drinking.  The  maiden  sat 
there  sod.     He  came  as  a  spectator. 

16.  When  two  objects  or  sets  of  objects  are  compared,  the  com- 
parative degree  is  generally  used. 

Ex. — "  George  is  taller  than  William,"  or,  "  is  the  taller  of  the  two." 
Our  oranges  are  sweeter  than  yours. 

17.  When  more  than  two  objects  are  compared,  the  superlative 
degree  is  used. 


SYNTAX — ADJECTIVE   AS    PREDICATE.  227 

Ex. — Achilles  was  the  bravest  of  the  Greeks. 

18.  When  the  comparative  degree  is  used,  the  latter  term  should 
always  exclude  the  former. 

Ex. — New  York  is  larger  than  any  other  city  of  the  United  States. 
He  was  wiser  than  his  brothers. 

But  when  the  superlative  is  used,  the  latter  term  should  always 
include  the  former. 

Ex. — ^Ehode  Island  is  the  smallest  of  the  United  States. 

19.  Each,  one,  either,  and  neither  belong  to  nouns  in  the  third 
person  singular.  Hence,  when  used  as  nouns,  verbs  and  pronouns 
should  agree  with  them  accordingly. 

Ex. — Each  of  his  brothers  is  (not  are)  well. 

Either  and  neither  have  reference  to  tico  things  only;  each,  every,  and  any, 
to  more  than  two.  All  refers  to  the  individuals  of  a  whole  taken  collectively ; 
while  each,  every,  and  any  refer  to  them  when  taken  distributively.  The  fol- 
lowing sentence  is  wrong,  because  the  individuals  should  be  taken  collectively  : 
— "  Every  term  in  the  series  is  alike."     Say,  ^^All  the  terms  are  alike." 

20.  An  adjective  after  the  participle  or  infinitive  of  the  copula 
is  sometimes  used  abstractly,  referring,  it  may  be,  logically  (but 
not  grammatically)  to  some  indefinite  object. 

Ex. — To  be  good  is  to  he  happy. 

21.  An  adjective  may  belong  to  an  adverb,  to  a  phrase,  or  to  a 
clause  used  as  a  noun. 

Ex. — This  once.  (Here  "  once"  is  equivalent  to  "  one  time.")  To  de- 
ceive is  criminal.     That  youth  and  vigor  must  pass  away  is  undeniable. 

22.  The  reciprocal  each  other  should  be  applied  to  two  objects ; 
one  another,  to  more  than  two. 

Ex. — "Righteousness  and  peace  have  kissed  each  other," — not  "one 
another."     These  various  tribes  have  been  at  war  with  one  another. 

Caution  I. — Never  use  A  before  the  sound  of  a  vowel,  nor  AN 
before  the  sound  of  a  consonant.    Say,  "An  apple," — not  "A  apple." 

Caution  II. — Avoid  the  use  of  a  plural  adjective  to  limit  a  singu^ 
lar  noun.    Say,  "This  sort  of  people," — not  "those  sost." 

Caution  III. — Avoid  the  vulgar  use  of  them  for  those,  and 
THIS  HERE,  or  THAT  'ERE,/or  THIS,  or  THAT.  Say,  '' Those  books," 
—not  "7%€m  books;"  ''This  chair,"— not  ''This  'ere  chair." 

Caution  IV. — Avoid  the  use  of  the  adjectme  for  the  adverb.  Say, 
"  Sipesk  prompt ly,'' — not  "prompt.^* 


228  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Caution  V. — Avoid  the  use  of  the  sujDerlative  degree  when  twe 
objects  are  compared,  or  of  the  comparative  when  more  than  two  are 
compared.  Say,  "  The  wiser  of  the  two," — not  "  The  wisest  of  the 
two ;"  "  The  wisest  of  them  all," — not  "  The  wiser  of  them  all." 

Caution  VI. — Avoid  the  use  of  double  comparatives  and  superla- 
tives. Say,  "This  is  the  unkindest  cut  of  all," — not  "the  most  un- 
kindest  cut  of  all." 

Caution  VII. — Avoid  the  use  of  the  article  before  a  title  or  name 
usedmerely  asaword.  Say, "  He  is  called cap^aw," — not "  thecaptain.^^ 

Caution  VIII. — Avoid  the  use  of  the  article  before  the  second, 
noun,  when  the  same  object  is  compared  in  two  different  capacities. 
Say,  "He  is  a  better  teacher  than^oe^," — not  "than  a  poet." 


182.  Exercise. 

1.  Analyze  the  following  examples,  and  parse  the  adjectives: — 
The  yellow  sunflower  by  the  brook  in  autumn  beauty  stood. 

Life  is  real,  life  is  earnest.  The  influence  of  such  pursuits  is 
ennobling.  He  was  a  good  man,  and  a  just.  He  was  a  burning 
and  a  shining  light.  These  opportunities,  improved  as  they  should 
be,  must  produce  the  desired  results.  The  hopes  of  the  whole 
family  were  centred  on  him.  His  resources  were  inexhaustible. 
To  insult  the  afilicted  is  impious.  Pity  the  sorrows  of  a  poor  old 
man,  whose  trembling  limbs  have  borne  him  to  your  door.  That 
he  should  refuse  such  a  proposition,  was  not  unexpected.  Every 
thing  which  is  false,  vicious,  or  unworthy  is  despicable  to  him, 
though  all  the  world  should  approve  it. 

Model. — "  The  skj  was  clear,  and  the  immense  vault 
of  the  heavens  appeared  in  awful  majesty  and  grandeur.'* 
Brydone, 

Analyze  by  the  proper  models,  and  parse  the,  clear,  and  immense. 

The  is  a  definite  article,  and  belongs  to  "  sky,"  according  to  Eule 
v.,  or  Rule  V.,  1,  d. 

Clear  is  a  qualifying  adjective,  and  is  used  as  the  attribute  of  the 
proposition,  and  belongs  to  the  subject "  sky,"  according  to  Rule  V., 
l,a. 

Immense  is  a  qualifying  adjective,  and  is  used  to  modify  "vault," 
to  which  it  belongs,  according  to  Rule  V.,  1,  b. 

2.  Construct  examples  of  your  own  to  illustrate  the  various  uses  of 
the  adjective. 


SYNTAX — NOUN   IN   APPOSITION.  229 


183.  The  Noun  or  tlie  Pronoun  in  Apposition. 

1.  Rule  VI. — A  noun  or  a  pronoun  used  to  explain 
or  identify  another  noun  or  pronoun  is  put  by  apposition 
in  the  same  case. 

Ex.— William  the  Conqueror  defeated  Harold,  the  Saxon  king. 

2.  The  explanatory  noun  or  pronoun  must  denote  the  same  per- 
son or  thing  as  that  which  it  identifies. 

It  usually  explains  by  showing  the  office,  ranh,  capacity,  occupation,  or 
character  of  the  principal  term;  as  "Peter  the  Hermit;"  "John  the  Evaiuje- 
list." 

3.  This  construction  may  be  regarded  as  derived  from  an  adjec- 
tive clause  by  abridging  it. 

Ex. — Paul,  who  loas  the  apostle  to  the  Gentiles,  =  Paul,  the  apostle  to  the 
Gentiles. 

Hence,  like  the  full  clause,  it  may  be  restrictive,  in  which  case  it  points  out 
the  individual;  as,  "William  the  Conqueror;"  or  it  may  be  explanatory 
(177,  12) ;  that  is,  it  resumes  the  idea  expressed  by  the  principal  noun,  for  the 
purpose  of  amplification,  rhetorical  effect,  or  even  argument;  as,  "Moses,  the 
servant  of  the  Lord,  died  there  in  the  land  of  Moab."  Here  "  servant"  is  not 
used  to  distinguish  this  Moses  from  some  other,  but  to  show  the  writer's  idea 
of  his  exalted  character  as  the  servant  of  the  Lord.  Mark,  also,  the  follow- 
ing examples  : — "  The  Lord,  the  most  high  God,  the  possessor  of  heaven  and 
earth;"  "You  have  ruined  him,  your  p>rotector,  your  best  friend," — that  is,  not- 
withstanding he  is  your  protector  and  your  heat  friend. 

Remark. — It  is  an  error  to  suppose  that  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  is  in  appo- 
sition with  another  noun  or  pronoun  because  the  construction  requires  them 
to  be  put  in  the  same  case.  The  predicate  noun  is  not  in  apposition  with  the 
subject  noun,  though  it  is  required  to  be  in  the  same  case:  in  one  case  we 
affirm  what  in  the  other  we  assume.  The  second,  or  attributive  object,  after 
the  active  voice  of  copulative  verbs,  is  not  in  apposition  with  the  first,  though 
in  the  same  case.    (See  187,  9.) 

4.  Three  cases  of  apposition  may  be  distinguished : — 

(a.)  The  noun  in  apposition,  though  subordinate  to  the  principal, 
is  made  prominent,  and  receives  the  emphasis;  as,  "Peter  the 
Hermit."     In  this  case  it  is  always  placed  last. 

[b.)  The  noun,  when  put  in  apposition  with  a  personal  pronoun, 
though  placed  last,  is  so  nearly  equal  in  value  with  the  latter  as  to 
render  it  sometimes  doubtful  which  should  be  regarded  as  principal  ; 
as,  "  Ye  men  of  Athens." 

20 


230  ENGLISH    GBAMMAR. 

(c.)  When  used  as  a  title,  or  part  of  a  name,  the  noun  in  appo- 
sition loses  the  emphasis,  is  placed  first,  and  may  be  taken  with 
the  principal  noun  as  one  complex  name  (44,  5);  as,  ^^ General 
Scott;"  "  Washington  Irving."  Some  have  supposed  the  leading 
noun  here  to  be  used  adjectively.  But  when  a  noun  is  used  wholly 
as  an  adjective,  it  denotes  a  different  thing  from  that  which  it  limits ; 
as,  "  A  silver  cup." 

5.  When,  for  the  sake  of  emphasis,  the  same  name  is  repeated,  it 
is  in  apposition  with  the  former. 

Ex. — A  horse  I  a  horse!  my  kingdom  for  a  horse. 

Bemare. — Any  resumed  construction,  whether  it  be  that  of  a  noun,  a  pro- 
noun, or  any  other  part  of  speech,  may  be  said  to  be  in  apposition ;  as,  "  To 
die, — to  sleep ;  to  sleep,  perchance  to  dream."  "  He  has  falsely  accused  me  of 
conspiring  against  my  country :— falsely,  or  why  has  he  not  made  his  charges 
good?" 

6.  When  the  limiting  noun  denotes  a  person,  it  generally,  though 
not  always,  agrees  with  the  limited  in  nmnber,  gender,  and  case. 

Ex. — Milton,  the  poet.     The  Franks,  a  people  of  Germany. 

7.  The  noun  in  apposition  is  rendered  more  emphatic  when 
joined  by  such  connectives  as  namely,  as,  to  wit,  that  is. 

Ex. — Two  men,  namely,  George  and  James.  So  that  he,  as  God,  sitteth 
in  the  temple  of  God. 

8.  A  noun  or  a  pronoun  in  the  plural  may  be  represented  by  two 
or  more  nouns  which  together  are  equivalent  to  it. 

Ex. — The  victims,  a  brother  and  a  sister. 

The  reverse  of  this  rule  is  equally  true. 

Ex. — Intemperance,  oppression,  and  fraud,  vices  of  the  age. 

9.  In  the  case  of  the  expressions  each  other  and  one  another, 
the  first  words,  each  and  one,  are  in  apposition  with  a  preceding 
plural  noun  or  pronoun,  or  with  two  or  more  singular  nouns  taken 
conjointly. 

Ex.— The  boys  struck  one  another,  =  The  boys  struck— erne  struck 
another.  John  and  David  love  each  other,  =  John  and  David  love 
— each  loves  the  other. 

Each  and  one  are  in  the  nominative  case,  and  other  is  in  the  objective  case. 
It  is  better,  in  some  cases,  to  consider  the  combination  as  an  inseparable  term; 
as,  "  He  did  not  recommend  the  washing  of  one  another's  feet." 

10.  The  proper  name  of  a  place,  instead  of  being  put  in  appo- 


SYNTAX — NOUN   IN   APPOSITION.  231 

sition  with  the  common  name,  is  usually  governed  by  the  prepo- 
sition of. 

Ex. — The  city  of  Rome. 

11.  A  noun  is  sometimes  in  apposition  with  a  sentence,  and 
sometimes  a  sentence  with  a  noun. 

Ex. — They  devoted  their  whole  time  to  the  promotion  of  our  happi- 
ness,— attentions  which  we  shall  not  soon  forget.  The  maxim,  Enough  is 
as  good  as  a  feast,  has  silenced  many  a  vain  wish. 

12.  When  possessives  are  in  apposition,  the  sign  of  possession 
('s)  is  commonly  used  with  only  one  of  them,  and  with  that  one 
which  immediately  precedes  the  limited  noun. 

Ex. — John  the  Baptisfs  head.  His  majesty  King  Henri/ s  crown.  For 
Herodias^  sake,  his  brother  Philip's  wife.     At  Smith,  s  the  bookseller. 

13.  Sometimes  a  noun  preceded  by  "  as,"  without  the  sign  and 
evidently  without  the  signification  of  the  possessive,  refers  logically 
to  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  in  the  possessive. 

Ex. — What  do  you  think  of  my  brother's  success  as  a  teacher  f  As  an 
author,  his  "Adventurer"  is  his  capital  work. 

Rather  than  to  consider  teacher  and  author  in  the  possessive  case,  here,  it  is 
better  to  siippose  teacher  to  refer  in  sense  to  brother's,  but  to  take  its  case 
from  success;  and  author  to  refer  logically  to  his,  but  grammatically  to  work. 


184.  Exercise. 

1.  Anahjze  the  following  examples,  and  parse  the  nouns  or  the  pro- 
nouns in  apposition : — 

The  patriarch  Abraham  was  accounted  faithful.  The  Emperor 
Nero  was  a  cruel  tyrant.  James,  the  royal  Scottish  poet,  was 
imprisoned  in  Windsor  Castle.  In  the  fifth  century  the  Franks,  a 
people  of  Germany,  invaded  France.  Frederic  William  III.,  King 
of  Prussia,  son  of  Frederic  William  II.  and  Louisa,  Princess  of 
Hesse-Darmstadt,  was  born  August  3,  1770. 

Model. — "Daniel  Boone,  the  pioneer  of  Kentucky, 
was  born  in  Bucks  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  the  month  of 
February,  17S5J'—Sparks. 

Analyze  this  sentence,  and  parse  the  subject,  predicate,  and  all  the  oon- 
nectivea. 

Pioneer  is  a  common  noun,  of  the  third  person,  singular  number, 


232  ENGLISH   GKAMMAE. 

masculine  gender,  nominative  case,  and  is  used  to  identify  "  Daniel 
Boone,"  with  which  it  is  put  in  apposition,  by  Eule  VI.    (Repeat  it.) 

2.  Construct  similar  examples  of  your  own  to  illustrate  apposition. 


185.  Noun  or  Pronoun  in  the  Possessive. 

1.  Hule  VH. — A  noun  or  a  pronoun  used  to  limit  the 

application  of  another  noun,  by  denoting  possession,  is 

put  in  the  possessive  case. 

Ex; — Stephen's  courage  failed.  Their  fortune  was  ample.  Whose 
work  is  this  ? 

2.  The  principal  idea  expressed  by  this  relation  is  that  of  possession : 
yet  this  term  should  not  be  understood  to  mean  sim]^\y  property. 
The  possessive  case  is  employed  to  denote, — 

[a.)  Property;  as,  "The /armor's  house." 

{b.)  Sonree  or  orig^in;  as,  "Heaven's  command;"  "the  sun's 
rays." 

(c.)  Agency;  as,  "Solomon's  temple,"  i.e.  the  temple  built  by 
Solomon. 

[d.)  Adaptation  or  fitness;  as,  "Men's  hats." 

[e.)  Kindred;  as  " Brother's  SOU." 

(/.)  Time,  weig^ht,  and  measure;  as,  "The  ten  years'  war;"  "a 
pound's  weight ;"  "  a  mile's  length." 

Remark. — The  possessive  case  is  used  to  limit  the  noun  when  we  wish  to 
express  some  agency  emanating  usually  from  a  person  or  from  some  object 
treated  as  a  person.  It  performs  the  office  of  the  adjective,  and  is  hence 
reckoned  an  adjective  element. 

3.  The  relation  of  the  possessive  is  one  of  dependence.  There 
must,  therefore,  be  some  noun  for  it  to  limit.  This  noun,  however, 
may  be  understood. 

Ex. — He  worships  at  St.  Paul's  \_church']. 

4.  The  present  active  participle,  the  present  passive  (with  being), 
and  the  perfect  participles  (but  never  the  past,  or  the  simple  pas- 
sive), when  used  as  nouns,  may  be  limited  by  the  possessive,  and  at 
the  same  time  may  have  the  limitation  which  they  have  when  they 
are  complete  predicates. 

Ex. — I  heard  of  your  studying  Latin.  I  am  in  favor  of  their  bringing 
the  dispute  to  a  speedy  close. 


SYNTAX — THE   POSSESSIVE.  233 

6.  Instead  of  the  possessive  form,  the  preposition  o/",  with  the 
objective,  is  often  used. 

Ex. — The  court  oj  the  Jang,  =  The  king's  court. 

6.  The  possessive  case  may  be  either  assumed  or  predicated. 
Ex. — David/s  book.     This  book  is  David's. 

7.  An  adjective  sometimes,  though  seldom,  intervenes  between 
the  possessive  and  the  noun  on  which  it  depends. 

Ex. — Of  man's  first  disobedience. 

When,  in  such  case,  the  noun  is  understood,  the  possessive  sign  is  annexed 
to  the  adjective  used  as  a  noun ;  as,  "  This  is  the  wretched'a  only  plea." 

8.  All  possessive  constructions  may  be  divided  into  simple,  com- 
plex, and  compound.  The  construction  of  simple  possessives  is 
sufficiently  explained  by  Rule  VII. 

9.  A  possessive  is  complex  when  a  group  of  words,  consisting  of 
a  principal  and  a  subordinate  term,  is  put  in  the  possessive.  Of 
this  there  are  two  cases : — 

{a.)  The  subordinate  noun  may  be  in  the  objective  after  a  prepo- 
sition. 

Ex. — The  Duke  of  Wellington's  sword. 

Here  the  possessive  sign  is  applied  to  an  inseparable  group.  Although 
"duke"  alone  is  in  the  possessive,  it  would  not  be  improper  to  regard  the 
whole  group  as  a  noun  in  the  possessive,  limiting  "  sword."  When  possession 
in  a  similar  case  is  predicated  (6,  above),  the  sign  is  applied  to  the  simple 
possessive  noun;  as,  "  There  shall  nothing  die  of  all  that  is  the  children's  of 
Israel." — Exodus  ix.  4. 

[b.)  The  subordinate  noun  may  be  put  in  apposition  with  the 
principal  noun. 

Here  are  two  cases.  (1.)  When  the  subordinate  noun  unites  with  the  other, 
forming  a  complex  name  (183,  4,  c).  In  this  case  the  sign  of  possession  is 
applied  to  the  last  only,  or  that  nearest  the  limited  noun  ;  as,  "General  George 
Washington's  farewell  address."  (2.)  When  the  subordinate  noun  is  properly 
in  apposition  with  a  possessive  noun ;  as,  "  For  thy  servant  David's  sake ;" 
"At  Smith's  the  bookseller."  Here  the  rule  is  to  give  the  possessive  sign  to 
the  one  immediately  preceding  the  governing  noun,  whether  it  be  the  first 
possessive,  as  in  the  second  example,  or  the  second,  as  in  the  first  example. 

10.  A  possessive  is  compound  when  the  terms  composing  it  are 
coordinate ;  and  here  also  are  two  cases : — 

{a.)  The  coordinate  terms  may  individually  limit  a  noun  denoting 
one  common  object. 

20* 


234  ENGLISH   GRAMMAE. 

Ex. — Gould,  Kendall,  and  Lin<ioln^s  store. 

(b.)  They  may  limit  the  same  noun  applied  to  different  objects. 
Ex. — "Bichardson'Sy   Worcester's,  and  Webster's  Dictionary;"  that  is, 
three  dictionaries. 

In  this  case  each  noun  has  the  sign,  because  "dictionary'*  is  understood 
immediately  after  it.  But  in  the  other  case  the  group  has  the  sign,  which  is, 
by  a  general  rule,  applied  to  the  noun  nearest  to  the  governing  word. 

Remauk. — There  are  two  other  constructions  which  are  thought  by  some 
to  come  under  the  case  of  complex  possessives :  the  one  is  the  case  of  the 
predicate  noun  in  an  abridged  proposition  whose  subject  has  been  changed 
to  the  possessive ;  the  other  is  that  mentioned  in  183,  13.  For  these  cases 
see  175,  b,  and  183,  13. 

11.  Sometimes  a  possessive  and  the  limited  noun  unite  and  form 
a  compound,  which  may  be  taken, — 

(a.)  liiteraiiy,  and  should  be  written  without  the  possessive  sign. 
Ex. — Tradesman,  craftsman,  ratsbane,  doomsday. 

{b.)  Metapboricaiiy,  in  which  case  it  should  be  written  with 
the  sign. 

Ex. — JoVs-tears,  Jew's-ear,  bear' s-foot,  hounds s-tongue,  beai-' s-breech, 
lion's-tail,  wolf's-bane,  wolf's-pea^ch, — names  of  plants. 

12.  When  a  combination,  consisting  of  a  possessive  and  its 
governing  noun,  is  used  as  an  adjective,  the  sign  should  not  be 
omitted. 

Ex. — A  bird's-eye  view.  A  camel's-hair  shawl.  Taylor's  Kiihner's 
Greek  Grammar.     Eden's  garden  bird. 

Caution  I. — In  writing  nouns  in  the  possessive,  never  omit  the 
possessive  termination.    Write  ^^ man's," — not  "mans." 

Caution  II. — In  using  pronouns  in  the  possessive,  never  insert  the 
apostrophe  in  writing,  nor  add  the  letter  n  in  speaking.  Write 
*' theirs," — not  " their' s."  Say,  "his,  hers,  ours,  yours,  theirs," — not 
"  hisn,  hern,  ourn,  yourn,  theirn." 

Caution  III. — Never  make  the  limited  noun  plural  because  the 
possessive  is  plural.  Say,  "  Their  decisio7i"— not,  "  Their  decisions;" 
one  only  being  meant. 

186.  Exercise. 

1.  Analyze  the  following  examples,  and  parse  the  possessives : — 
Charles's  resignation  filled  all  Europe  with  astonishment.    The 


SYNTAX — THE   OBJECT.  235 

joy  of  his  youth  was  great.  Botha's  bay  received  the  ship.  Her 
ways  are  ways  of  pleasantness,  and  all  her  paths  are  peace.  A 
mother's  tenderness,  and  a  father's  care,  are  nature's  gifts  for  man's 
advantage.  A  chieftain's  daughter  seemed  the  maid.  Yet  my  last 
thought  is  England's.  She  stooped  her  by  the  runnel's  side. 
Hushed  were  his  Gertrude's  lips.  Our  harps  we  left  by  Babel's 
streams. 

Model. — "  What,  I  say,  was  Caesar's  object  ?" — Knowles. 

This  is  a  complex  sentence,  consisting  of  a  principal  clause,  "  I  say,"  and 
a  subordinate  interrogative  clause,  "What  was  Cassar's  object?"  It  is  quoted 
directly  (163,  1),  and  hence  the  interrogation  point  is  used  at  the  close 
(163,  6). 

I  is  the  subject  of  the  principal  clause,  and  say  the  gram- 
matical predicate ;  it  is  limited  by  the  quoted  clause,  which  is  sub- 
ordinate in  construction,  and  is  an  objective  element  of  the  third 
class.  It  has  no  connective  (i63, 4) ;  its  simple  subject  is  "  object," 
and  is  limited  by  the  adjective  element  "  Caesar's ;"  the  predicate  is 
"was  what,"  of  which  "was"  is  the  copula  and  "what"  the  attri- 
bute. 

Csesar's  is  a  proper  noun,  of  the  third  person,  singular  number, 
masculine  gender,  possessive  case,  and  is  used  to  limit  "  object,"  by 
denoting  possession.     Rule  VII.     (Repeat  it.) 

2.  Construct  similar  examples  of  your  own. 


187.  The  Object. 

1.  Rule  Vlll. — A  noun  or  a  pronoun  used  as  the 
object  of  a  transitive  verb,  or  of  its  participles,  must  be 
in  the  objective  case. 

Ex. — He  found  the  object  which  he  desired. 

(a.)  Copulative  verbs  (9,  below)  in  the  active  voice 
take  a  direct  object,  and  predicate  of  it  an  attributive 

object,  both  of  which  form  a  double  object. 

Ex. — They  called  him  John. 

Remark. — In  the  passive  voice,  the  direct  object  becomes  the  subject,  and 
the  attributive  becomes  the  attribute  ,•  as,  "He  was  called  John." 

(b.)  Certain  verbs,  as  give,  ask,  teacb,  and  others  (11, 


236  ElfGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

below),  in  the  active  voice,  take  two  objects,  one  direct , 
and  the  other  indirect 
Ex. — He  gave  me  a  600^. 

Remark. — In  the  passive,  the  direct  object  should  become  the  subject,  and 
the  indirect  should  remain  in  the  predicate ;  as,  "A  book  was  given  to  me." 

2.  When  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  is  used  to  complete  the  meaning 
of  a  transitive  verb,  without  the  aid  of  a  preposition  expressed  or 
understood,  it  is  called  the  direct  object;  but  when  it  is  added  to  a 
verb,  either  transitive  or  intransitive,  to  show  that  to  or  for  which 
any  thing  is,  or  is  done,  or  that  from  or  out  of  which  any  thing 
proceeds,  it  is  called  the  indirect  object. 

Ex. — Ellen  gave  an  apple  to  her  brother.    They  spoke  of  kis  troubles. 

3.  When  an  indirect  object  precedes  the  direct,  the  preposition 
should  be  omitted ;  when  it  follows,  it  should  be  expressed. 

Ex. — I  lent  him  a  book,  =  I  lent  a  book  to  him. 

4.  The  indirect  object  is  sometimes  used  alone  with  intransitive 
verbs,  sometimes  with  an  adjective,  and  in  a  few  instances  with  a 
noun. 

Ex. — He  spoke  of  his  trials.  To  me  this  rule  is  obvious.  To  the 
hero  that  was  a  proud  day. 

5.  The  object  of  a  transitive  verb  may  be  an  infinitive,  or  a  sub- 
stantive clause. 

Ex. — I  love  to  write.    I  have  heard  that  he  was  sick. 

6.  Some  intransitive  verbs  are  followed  by  an  object  of  kindred 
signification  (82, 10). 

Ex. — He  ran  a  race.    She  dreamed  a  dream. 

7.  The  object  of  the  active  verb  becomes  the  subject  of  the. 
passive. 

Ex. — Romulus  founded  Home,  ==  Home  was  founded  by  Romulus. 

8.  To  avoid  ambiguity,  the  object  should  be  placed  after  the 
verb,  especially  when  the  subject  and  the  object  are  both  nouns. 

Ex. — "Alexander  conquered  Darius," — not  "Alexander  Darius  con- 
quered." 

When  the  subject  or  the  object  is  a  pronoun,  the  form  usually  determines 
the  relation ;  as,  ''Him  followed  his  next  mate." 

9.  The  following  copulative  verbs,  make,  appoint,  elect,  create, 


SYNTAX — THE   OBJECT.  237 

constitute,  render,  name,  style,  call,  esteem,  think,  consider,  regard, 
reckon,  and  some  others,  not  only  take  after  them  a  direct  object, 
but  predicate  of  it  another  object,  which  may,  therefore,  be  called 
its  attribute.  The  attributive  object  may  be  either  a  noun,  an  adjec- 
tive, or  a  verb. 

Ex. — They  made  him  an  officer.  They  made  him  sick.  They  made 
him  labor. 

Though  it  is  evident  that  the  attributive  object,  when  a  noun,  denotes  the 
same  person  or  thing  as  the  first,  it  is  by  no  means  in  apposition  with  it.  In 
the  case  of  apposition,  the  principal  noun  completes  the  meaning  of  the  verb, 
and  the  second  limits  the  first;  as,  "  They  called  Miles,  the  carpenter."  But 
in  the  case  of  two  objects  (the  object  and  its  attribute)  both  are  necessary  to 
complete  the  meaning  of  the  verb ;  as,  "  They  called  Miles  a  carpenter."  In 
one  case,  the  second  noun  has  no  grammatical  relation  to  the  verb;  in  the 
other,  it  is  directly  related  both  to  the  verb  and  to  the  first  noun.  In  the 
first  example,  " car2yenter"  should  be  parsed  as  a  noun  in  the  objective,  put 
in  apposition  with  the  first,  by  Rule  VI.  In  the  second  es^^mple,  "  carpenter" 
should  be  parsed  as  a  noun  in  the  objective,  forming,  in  connection  with 
*'3Iile8,"  the  object  of  "called,"  being  also  an  attribute  to  the  first  object.  In 
a  similar  way  parse  "sick,"  and  "labor,"  in  the  above  examples ;  or,  one  may 
be  called  theirs*  or  principal,  and  the  other  the  attributive,  object  of  the  verb. 

Remark. — This  construction,  in  many  instances,  may  be  traced  to  an 
abridged  proposition,  in  which  the  infinitive  has  been  dropped ;  as,  "  They 
considered  him  a  poet,"  that  is,  to  he  a  poet.  In  fact,  the  infinitive  of  the 
copula  is  often  expressed,  the  first  object  representing,  in  the  objective,  what 
was  the  subject  nominative,  the  second,  in  like  manner,  what  was  the  predi- 
cate nominative,  before  the  proposition  was  abridged;  as,  "  I  knew  that  he  was 
a  scholar;"  "1  knew  hiin  to  be  a  scholar."  In  such  cases  the  infinitive  and 
the  second  noun  form  the  attributive  object  of  the  verb,  the  second  noun  being 
in  the  objective  after  "to  he."  Some  verbs,  as  say,  announce,  hope,  and  others, 
take  only  the  full  form  of  the  proposition ;  others,  as  believe,  know,  think,  and 
many  others,  admit  either  the  full  or  the  abridged  form ;  while  others,  as 
compel,  constrain,  and  others,  take  only  the  abridged  form ;  as,  "  I  say  that  he 
did  it," — never,  him  to  do  it;  "  I  believe  that  he  is  honest,"  =^  him  to  be  honest ; 
**  They  compelled  him  to  go," — never,  that  he  shoxdd  go. 

10.  An  infinitive  may  be  the  second  or  attributive  object;  the 
first  object  being  its  subject,  and  the  two  together  forming  a  kind 
of  abridged  proposition. 

Ex. — They  ordered  the  soldiers  to  march.  They  ordered  that  the  soldiers 
should  march  (l67.  Mod.  16). 

11.  The  following  verbs,  buy,  sell,  play,  sing,  get,  lend,  draw,  seiid, 
make,  pass,  write,  pour,  give,  teach,  leave,  bring,  tell,  do,  present,  throw, 
carry,   ask,  show,  oi'dcr,  promise,  refuse,  dejiy,  provide,  and  some 


238  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

others,  take  after  them,  besides  a  direct  object,  an  indirect  object, 
showing  to  or  from  what  the  action  tends. 
Ex. — Give  me  a  book. 

12.  The  indirect  object  sometimes,  though  with  doubtftil  pro* 
priety,  becomes  the  subject  of  the  passive  verb. 

Ex. — He  was  asked  his  opinion.    I  was  taught  grammar. 

Opinion  and  grammar  are  in  the  objective  case  after  a  passive  verb,  pro- 
perly governed  by  some  preposition  understood. 

13.  Instead  of  a  single  word,  or  an  infinitive,  a  substantive  clause 
may  become  one  of  the  objects. 

Ex. — He  informed  me  that  the  boat  had  sailed. 


188.  Exercise. 

1.  In  the  following  examples,  analyze  the  sentences j  and  parse  the 
nouns  and  the  pronouns  in  the  objective: — 

Ambition  makes  the  same  mistake  concerning  power  that  avarice 
makes  concerning  wealth.  If  you  have  performed  an  act  of  great 
and  disinterested  virtue,  conceal  it.  (imperial  Rome  governed  the 
bodies  of  men,  but  did  not  extend  her  empire  farthe^  In  former 
times,  patriots  prided  themselves  on  their  own  poverty  and  the 
riches  of  the  state.  He  endeavored  to  inculcate  right  principles. 
He  sought  to  follow  the  example  of  the  good.  They  say  that  they 
have  bought  it.  The  truly  great  consider,  first,  how  they  may  gain 
the  approbation  of  God.    He  inquired,  "  Who  comes  there?" 

.  Model  I.r^"Thou  hast  delivered  me  from  the  strivings 
of  the  people;  and  thou  hast  made  me  the  head  of  the 
heathen." — Psalm  xviii.  43y*^ 

This  is  a  compound  sentence,  consisting  of  two  coordinate  parts, 
connected  by  "  and."  The  first  is  a  simple  sentence,  having  "  thou"  for 
its  subject,  and  "hast  delivered"  for  its  simple  and  "hast  delivered 
me  from  the  strivings  of  the  people"  for  its  complex  predicate. 
(Point  out  all  the  modifications  of  the  simple  predicate.) 

The  second  component  part  is  also  a  simple  sentence,  having 
"thou"  for  its  subject,  "hast  made"  for  its  simple  and  "hast  made 
me  the  head  of  the  heathen"  for  its  complex  predicate.  The 
simple  predicate  "hast  made"  is  modified  by  "me  the  head  of  the 
heathen,"  an  objective  element,  consisting  of  "  me,"  the  direct,  and 


SYNTAX — ADVERBS  AS    MODIFIERS.  239 

*'  the  head  of  the  heathen,"  the  attributive  object,  both  together 
forming  a  double  object,  used  to  complete  the  meaning  of  "  hast 
made." 

Me  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  first  person,  singular  number, 
masculine  gender,  and  in  the  objective  case,  and  in  the  first  clause 
is  the  object  of  "  hast  delivered,"  according  to  Eule  VIII. ;  and  in 
the  second,  the  leading  or  direct  object  of  "  hast  made." 

Head  is  a  common  noun,  third  person,  &c.,  and  is  the  attributive 
object  of "  hast  made,"  "  me  head,"  combined,  being  the  double 
object,  according  to  Rule  VIII.  a. 

In  the  same  manner  parse  him,  and  to  write,  in  the  sentence,  "  I 
commanded  him  to  write" 

Model  II. — "  He  gave  me  a  promise." 

"  He"  is  the  subject,  and  " gave"  the  simple  and  "gave  me  a  pro- 
mise" the  complex  predicate;  " gave"  is  limited  by  "  me"  and  "  pro- 
mise,"— the  latter  a  direct  and  the  former  an  indirect  object  of 
"  gave."  Let  the  learner  parse  each,  and  give  Eule  VIII.  b,  and 
Rule  VIII. 

2.  Construct  examples  of  your  own  to  illustrate  the  object  after 
transitive  verbs. 

189.  Adverbs  as  Modifiers. 

1.  Rule  IX. — Adverbs  are  used  to  limit  verbs,  parti- 
ciples, adjectives,  and  other  adverbs. 

Ex. — Lightning  moves  swiftly.  He  advanced,  walking  slowly.  The 
night  was  very  dark.     The  sound  was  heard  very  distinctly. 

2.  Some  adverbs,  instead  of  modifying  any  particular  word, 
are  either  independent,  or  are  used  to  modify  an  entire  proposi- 
tion :  these  are  yes,  no,  nay,  amen,  likewise,  truly,  &c. 

Ex. — Will  you  go?     Yes.     Truly,  God  is  good  to  Israel. 

3.  An  adverb  or  adverbial  expression  should  be  placed  so  near 
the  word  which  it  limits,  as  to  make  its  relation  obvious :  yet  no 
element  of  the  sentence  can  be  so  easily  transposed  without  causing 
ambiguity,  as  the  adverbial.  It  may  be  placed  at  the  beginning,  in 
the  middle,  or  at  the  end  of  the  sentence. 

Ex. — He  carefully  examined  the  document,  =  Carefully  did  he  ex- 
amine the  document.     He  examined  the  document  carefully. 


240  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

4.  Adverbs  are  used  sometimes  to  limit  the  meaning  of  a  prepo- 
sition, sometimes  of  a  phrase. 

Ex. — He  held  his  hand  exactly  over  the  place.  We  were  absent 
almost  a  year. 

5.  Adverbs  are  themselves  sometimes  modified  by  phrases  or 
clauses. 

Ex. — He  left  four  years  afterwards.  He  came  some  time  ago.  He  ran 
faster  than  his  brother. 

6.  What  J  equivalent  to  partly,  is  sometimes  used  as  an  adverb 
(75,  7).     Once  =  one  time,  is  often  used  as  a  noun. 

Ex. — Excuse  me  for  this  once. 

So,  also,  when,  now,  and  then  are  used  as  nouns;  as,  "  Until  now;"  "Since 
then;"  "  Since  icAen." 

7.  Conjunctive  adverbs  are  complex  words  usually  modifying 
two  words,  and  at  the  same  time  joining  an  adverbial  clause  to 
the  word  on  which  it  depends. 

Ex. — We  shall  be  present  when  the  boat  arrives  (135,  2). 

Caution  I. — Two  negatives  should  never  be  employed  to  express  a 
negation;  as,  "I  have  no  book," — not  "I  haven't  no  book." 

Caution  II. — Avoid  the  use  of  an  adverb  when  the  quality  of  an 
object,  and  not  the  manner  of  an  action,  is  to  be  expressed;  as,  "  The 
apple  tastes  sweet," — not  "  tastes  sweetly." 

Caution  III, — Avoid  the  use  of  no,  to  express  negation,  with  a 
verb  or  a  participle;  as,  "  I  shall  not  change  my  course  of  action, 
whether  you  do  or  not," — not  "whether  you  do  or  no." 

Caution  IV. — Never  use  how  before  that,  or  instead  of  it;  as, 
"  He  said  that  he  should  come," — not  "  how  he  should  come,"  nor 
"  how  that  he  should  come." 


190.  Exercise. 

1.  Analyze  the  sentences,  and  parse  the  adverbs,  in  the  following 
examples : — 

You  both  are  truly  welcome.  Speak  softly,  for  a  breath  might 
wake  her.  Yet  we  may  strongly  trust  his  skill.  How  heavily  her 
fate  must  weigh  her  down !  Freely  to  give  reproof,  and  thankfully 
to  receive  it,  is  an  indispensable  condition  of  true  friendship.    How 


SYNTAX — CASE    INDEPENDENT.  241 

happy  they  who  wake  no  more!  How  soon  man's  eartlily  enjoy- 
inents  pass  away!  How  easily  are  men  diverted  from  a  good 
cause ! 

Model  I. — "  Burke  was  deeply  hurt." — Macaulay. 

Analyze  the  sentence,  and  parse  deeply  thus : — 

Deeply  is  an  adverb, — comp.  deephj,  more  deeply,  most  deeply, — 
and  is  used  to  limit  "  was  hurt,"  by  Eule  IX.     (Repeat  it.) 

2.  Construct  examples  of  your  own  to  illusfrate  the  uses  of  the 
adverb. 

191.  Case  Independent  and  Interjection, 

1.  Kule  X. — The  nominative  case  independent,  and 
the  interjection,  have  no  grammatical  relation  to  the 
other  parts  of  the  sentence. 

A  noun  or  a  pronoun  may  be  independent, — 

(ft.)  By  direct  address. 

Ex. — Plato,  thou  reasonest  well. 
{h.)  By  mere  exclamation. 

Ex. — O  wretched  man  that  I  am  I 

(c.)  By  pleonasm,  or  when  the  attention  is  drawn  to  an  object 
before  any  thing  is  said  of  it. 

Ex. — Harry's  flesh,  it  fell  away.    Gad,  a  troop  shall  overcome  him. 

{d.)  As  snbject  of  an  abridg^ed  proposition,  when,  in  connection 
with  a  participle,  it  is  equivalent  to  a  proposition  of  which  it  was 
the  subject  before  the  former  was  abridged. 

Ex. — He  having  arrived,  we  returned. 

[e.)  As  predicate  in  an  abridgred  proposition,  when  it  follows 
the  infinitive  or  the  participle  of  the  copula  and  is  uncontrolled  by 
a  preceding  noun. 

Ex. — I  was  not  aware  of  his  being  a  scholar.  To  be  a  scholar  re- 
quires industry  and  perseverance. 

In  the  last  two  cases  the  noun  is  said  to  be  absolute,  and  the  group  of 
words  to  which  it  belongs,  including  the  participle  or  the  infinitive,  has  some 
connection  with  the  reet  of  the  sentence. 
Q  21 


242  ENGLISH   GRAMMAK. 

2.  In  the  case  of  the  nominative  absolute, — that  is,  the  nomina- 
tive preceding  a  participle, — sometimes  the  noun  or  the  pronoun  is 
understood,  and  sometimes  the  participle. 

Ex. — "  Properly  speaking,  there  is  no  such  thing  as  cold ;"  that  is, 
"we,  or  one,  speaking  properly."  "This  done,  and  all  is  safe;"  that 
is,  being  done.  "This  matter  at  an  end,  we  will  proceed;"  being  at  an 
end. 

Both  of  the  last  two  cases  result  from  abridging  a  dependent  clause.  The 
abridged  construction  may  usually  be  restored  to  a  complete  proposition. 


192.  Exercise. 

1.  Analyze  the  following  sentences,  and  parse  the  interjections  and 
the  ca^e^  independent : — 

Fair  daffodils !  we  weep  to  see  you  haste  away  so  soon.  O  day 
most  calm,  most  bright!  With  thee,  sweet  Hope,  resides  the  hea- 
venly light.  A  horse!  a  horse!  my  kingdom  for  a  horse!  The 
pilgrim  fathers!  where  are  they?  He  having  given  us  the  direction, 
we  departed.  I  was  not  aware  of  his  being  the  preacher.  O  the 
times!  O  the  manners!  Ah,  father!  these  are  wondrous  words. 
The  savage  rocks  have  drunk  thy  blood,  my  brother ! 

Model  I. — "Alack!  alack!  Edmund,  I  like  not  this 
unnatural  dealing." 

This  is  a  simple  sentence,  preceded  by  the  interjections  "Alack ! 
Alack!"  and  the  compellative,  or  the  name  of  the  person  ad- 
dressed. These  have  no  part  in  the  grammatical  construction  of 
the  sentence. 

"I"  is  the  subject,  and  "like"  the  simple  and  "like  not  this 
unnatural  dealing"  the  complex  predicate.  (Point  out  the  limita- 
tions of  the  simple  predicate.) 

Alack  is  an  interjection,  expressive  of  grief,  and  has  no  depend- 
ence upon  any  part  of  the  sentence,  by  Rule  X.  a.    (Repeat  it.) 

Edmund  is  a  proper  noun,  second  person,  singular  number, 
and  nominative  case  independent  by  direct  address.  Rule  X. 
See  a. 


Model  II. — "But,  O  vain  boast! 

Who  can  control  his  fate  ?" — Shahspeare. 

Boast  is  a  common  noun,  third  person,  singular  number,  neuter 


SYNTAX — COORDINATE   CONJUNCTIONS.  243 

gender,  and  nominative  case  independent  by  exclamation.    Rule  X. 
See  6. 

Model  III. — "Gad, — a  troop  shall  overcome  him." — 
Bible, 

Gad  is  a  proper  noun,  third,  sing.,  masc,  nom.  independent  by- 
pleonasm.    Rule  X.    See  c. 

Model  IV. — "The  war  having  ended,  the  army  was 
disbanded." 

For  the  analysis  of  this  case,  see  174,  1,  Model  III. 

War  is  a  common  noun,  third,  sing.,  neut.,  nominative  absolute 
with  the  participle  "  having  ended."    Rule  X.    See  d. 

Model  Y. — "  He  was   displeased   on   account  of  my 

being  a  friend  to  his  enemy." 

For  analysis,  see  176,  1,  Model  III. 

Friend  is  a  common  noun,  &c.,  and  is  in  the  nominative  abso- 
lute by  Rule  X.  See  e. 

2.  Construct  examples  to  illustrate  the  use  of  the  interjections  and 
cases  independent. 


193.  Coordinate  Conjunctions. 

1.  Hule  XI. — Coordinate  conjunctions  are  used  to 
connect  similar  elements. 

Ex. — Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob  were  Jewish  patriarchs. 

2.  These  conjunctions  are  used  only  when  the  parts  connected 
are  of  the  same  rank  (i53,  2,  3),  and  not  even  then  unless  there  is 
some  similarity  or  contrast  in  the  thoughts  or  ideas  expressed  by 
the  united  parts. 

Thus,  when  two  thoughts  are  uttered,  as,  "  The  king  sat  upon  his  throne," 
"  The  south  wind  is  blowing  gently,"  they  may  hold  the  same  rank  as 
independent  sentences,  but,  being  wholly  unlike  in  meaning,  they  cannot 
blend  into  one  sentence.  So,  again,  the  adjective  elements  "  old,"  and 
"brown,"  in  the  expression  "That  old  brown  house,"  are  of  the  same  rank, 
but  do  not  express  kindred  ideas.  Compare  with  these,  "We  have  much  to 
do,  AND  our  time  is  short;"     "A  iciae  and  patriotic  sovereign." 

3.  When  the  connection  between  two  similar  coordinate  thoughts 
or  ideas  is  to  be  made  close,  or  one  is  to  be  made  more  emphatic 


244  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

than  the  other,  two  conjunctions  are  used, — the  one  corresponding 
with  the  other,  and  both  combining  to  form  the  connection. 

Ex. — The  prince  is  both  virtuous  and  wise.  He  not  only  reads 
Shakspeare's  plays,  hut  he  appreciates  them. 

4.  Sometimes  a  thought  or  an  idea  sustains  a  double  relation  to 
another,  the  one  simply  coordinate,  the  other  causal,  illative,  con- 
cessive, augmentative,  ordinative,  partitive,  &c.  The  former  is  repre- 
sented by  the  simple  coordinate  conjunction  (sometimes  under- 
stood) placed  between  the  coordinate  parts,  and  the  latter  by  a 
connective  (sometimes  adverbial  in  its  nature)  associated  with  it. 

Ex. — The  south  wind  blows,  [and'\  therefore  there  must  be  rain.  She 
sings ;  [and,]  besides,  she  plays  beautifully. 

5.  When  the  coordinate  thought  or  idea  is  purely  causal,  the 
causal  or  illative  conjunction  expresses  the  whole  connection. 

Ex. — The  tree  is  falling,  therefore  run,  =  Run,  for  the  tree  is  falling. 

6.  When  correlatives  are  employed,  the  principal  conjunction  is 
usually  placed  at  the  beginning  of  the  second  or  added  clause,  and 
its  correlative  is  placed  in  the  first,  to  give  the  reader  or  hearer  an 
intimation  of  what  is  to  follow. 

Ex. — Whether  the  truth  of  the  matter  will  ever  be  discovered  or  not 
is  very  doubtful. 

Sometimes  (inelegantly,  however)  either  or  neither  is  placed  at 
the  end  of  the  sentence. 

Ex. — I  can  not  go,  nor  you  neither,  ■=  Neither  you  nor  I  can  go. 

Caution  I. — In  a  series  of  coordinate  terms,  unless  great  emphasis 
is  required,  insert  the  conjunction  between  the  last  two  only.  Say, 
"Peter,  James,  and  John," — not  "Peter,  and  James,  and  John." 

Caution  II. — In  using  correlatives,  be  careful  to  place  both  con- 
junctions so  as  to  mark  correctly  the  prominent  or  contrasted  terms. 
Say,  "  He  was  not  only  poor,  but  idle," — instead  of  "  Not  only  was 
he  poor,  but  idle.'* 

Caution  III  — Avoid  dissimilar  and  disproportionate  coordinate 
constructions.  Say,  "  I  saw  him  enter  the  gate  and  ring  the  bell," — 
not  "  I  saw  him  entering  the  gate,  and  ring  the  bell." 

194.  Exercise. 

1.  Analyze  the  following  sentences,  and  parse  the  conjunctions: — 
Clouds  and  darkness  are  round  about  him ;  righteousness  and 
judgment  are  the  habitation  of  his  throne.    They  were  united  both 


SYNTAX — COORDINATE   CONJUNCTIONS.  245 

by  ties  of  friendship  and  of  kindred.  I  am  debtor  both  to  the 
Greeks  and  to  the  barbarians.  The  country  was  wasted, — partly 
by  war,  partly  by  famine,  and  partly  by  pestilence.  The  relations 
of  the  teacher  will  be  treated  as  threefold:  first,  to  his  pupils, 
secondly,  to  his  school  officers,  and  thirdly,  to  the  parents.  A  hero 
on  the  day  of  battle  has  sacrificed  a  meal,  and  shall  we  therefore 
pity  him  ?  The  situation  is  not  suited  to  his  tastes ;  the  compensa- 
tion, moreover,  is  meagre.  They  have  indeed  honored  them  with 
their  praise,  but  they  have  disgraced  them  with  their  pity.  Not 
only  can  he  gain  no  lofty  improvement  without  labor,  but  without 
it  he  can  gain  no  tolerable  happiness. 

Model  I. — "  Talent  has  many  a  compliment  from  the 
bench,  but  tact  touches  fees  from  attorneys  and  clients." — 
London  Atlas, 

This  is  a  compound  sentence,  consisting  of  two  coordinate  prin- 
cipal clauses.  They  are  related  by  contrast  (i93,  2),  and  hence 
readily  unite  to  form  one  sentence.  Let  the  learner  analyze  each 
separately. 

But  is  an  adversative  coordinate  conjunction,  and  used  to  join 
the  second  clause  to  the  first,  by  Eule  XI. 

Here  hut  is  coordinate  to  join  clauses  of  equal  rank.  It  is  adversative, 
since  the  clauses  are  not  in  harmony  with  each  other,  but  the  second  restricts 
the  thought  expressed  by  the  first,  by  shutting  off  or  opposing  any  such  in- 
ference as  that  the  mere  preeminence  of  talent  with  the  bench  implies  uni- 
versal preeminence.  It  also  shows  that  the  writer  intended,  by  the  contrast, 
to  bring  the  second  thought  into  greater  prominence  than  the  first. 

And,  in  the  second  clause,  is  a  copulative  coordinate  conjunction, 
and  is  used  to  unite  the  two  elements  "  from  attorneys  and  [from] 
clients,"  by  Eule  XL 

These  two  phrases  are  similar  in  form,  similar  in  the  ideas  expressed, 
equal  in  rank,  equal  in  emphasis,  and  in  perfect  harmony  with  each  other. 
Hence  they  require  not  only  a  coordinate  but  a  copulative  conjunction. 

Model  II. — "  The  wolves  have  been  exterminated,  and 
therefore  the  flocks  and  herds  are  unmolested.^' 

This  is  a  compound  sentence,  containing  two  coordinate  clauses, 
— the  second  being  a  partial  compound.  Let  the  learner  analyze 
both  clauses. 

And,  in  the  first  case,  is  a  copulative  coordinate  conjunction, 
joining  the  two  clauses,  as  grammatically  equal  and  in  harmony 
with  each  other,  by  Rule  XI. 

21* 


246  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Therefore  is  a  causal  coordinate  conjunction,  and  is  used  to 
show  that  the  second  clause  is  a  logical  deduction  from  the  first. 
It  combines  with  "  and"  to  join  the  two  clauses, — the  one  gram- 
matically, the  other  logically,  but  both  cobrdinately,  by  Kule  XI. 

And,  in  the  second  clause,  is  a  copulative  coordinate  conjunction, 
and  is  used  to  join  the  two  subjects  "flocks"  and  "herds,"  by 
Rule  XI. 

2.  Construct  or  select  other  seiitences  containing  coordinate  conjunC' 
tionSf  and  explain  their  use. 

195.  Coordinate  Constructions. 

1.  Rule  XII. — When  a  verb  or  a  pronoun  relates  to  two 
or  more  nouns  connected  by  a  coordinate  conjunction, — 

(a.)  If  it  agrees  with  them  taken  conjointly,  it  must 
be  in  the  plural  number. 

ih.)  But  if  it  agrees  with  them  taken  separately,  it  must 
be  of  the  same  number  as  the  noun  which  stands  next  to  it. 

(c.)  If  it  agrees  with  one,  and  not  the  other,  it  must  take 
the  number  of  that  one. 

Ex. — Charles  and  his  sister  were  absent,  but  they  were  sent  for. 
Charles  or  his  sister  was  absent.  Charles  or  his  sisters  were  absent. 
Charles,  and  not  his  sister,  was  absent. 

2.  In  the  following  cases,  nouns  in  the  singular  seem  to  be  taken 
conjointly,  and  yet  the  verb  and  the  pronoun  should  be  singular : — 

[a.)  When  the  coordinate  nouns  denote  the  same  person  in  dif- 
ferent capacities. 

Ex. — This  great  statesman  and  orator  died  lamented  by  all  his  friends. 

[b.)  When  the  coordinate  nouns  are  considered  separately,  by 
means  of  such  limiting  words  as  each,  every-,  or  no. 

Ex. — Each  day  and  each  hour  brings  its  own  duties  and  trials.  Every 
book  and  every  paper  was  taken  from  its  place.  No  book  and  no  paper 
should  be  left  out  of  its  place. 

(c.)  When  the  coordinate  nouns  are  distinguished  with  emphasis 
by  means  of  not,  only,  too,  as  well  as,  or  when  there  is  an  emphatic 
enumeration  of  individuals. 

Ex. — George,  and  not  James,  is  at  his  task.  Truth,  and  truth  only^ 
is  worth  seeking  for  its  own  sake.     The  man,  and  his  servant  too,  was  ro 


SYNTAX — COORDINATE  CONSTRUCTIONS.  247 

warded.     The  father,  as  well  as  his  son,  was  in  fault.     Thine  is  the  king- 
dom, and  the  power,  and  the  glory. 

{d.)  When  the  coordinate  nouns  are  regarded  by  che  mind  as 
representing  one  thing. 

Ex. — Bread  and  milk  is  excellent  food  for  children.  The  horse  and 
chaise  is  in  its  place. 

3.  When  the  coordinate  parts  are  of  different  persons,  the  verb  or 
the  pronoun  agrees  with  the  first  rather  than  the  second,  and  with 
the  second  rather  than  the  third. 

Ex. — Thou  and  thy  sons  with  thee  (that  is,  ye)  shall  bear  the  iniquity 
of  your  priesthood.  John,  thou,  and  I  (that  is,  we)  are  attached  to  our 
country. 

4.  When  the  coordinate  parts  are  each  singular,  and  of  different 
genders, — 

(1.)  The  verb  may  relate  to  them  conjointly,  while  the  pronoun 
may  relate  to  but  one. 

Ex. — James  and  his  sister  were  destroying  her  bonnet.  James  and  his 
sister  were  destroying  his  cap. 

(2.)  Tho,  pronoun  may  relate  to  them  taken  conjointly,  while  the 
verb  relates  to  them  taken  separately. 

Ex. — ^^ James  or  his  sister  has  destroyed  their  dictionary," — the  dic- 
tionary being  theirs  by  a  joint  ownership. 

(3.)  If  the  pronoun  has  a  common  reference  to  both  coordinate 
nouns  taken  conjointly,  the  gender  cannot  be  distinguished  by  the 
pronoun,  since  the  latter  is  plural,  and  consequently  has,  in  Eng- 
lish, the  same  form  for  all  genders. 

(4.)  If  the  pronoun  refers  to  two  or  more  coordinate  nouns  taken 
separately,  there  is  no  personal  pronoun,  in  English,  applicable  to 
each,  and  there  is  an  inherent  difficulty  in  constructing  the  ex- 
pression properly. 

Ex. — John  or  Ellen  has  Iqgt  his  or  her  pencil. 

To  use  his  alone,  or  her  alone,  would  reveal  the  ownership,  which  is  sup- 
posed to  be  unknown.  Hence  it  does  not  avail  to  say  that  the  masculine  is 
preferred  to  the  feminine,  and  the  feminine  to  the  neuter;  for  either  would 
become  explicit,  as  in  case  4,  (1),  above.  To  avoid  this  difficulty,  it  is  best 
to  recast  the  sentence,  or  so  construct  it  as  to  escape  such  a  dilemma.  Yet, 
contrary  to  the  general  rule  (177,  6),  frequent  instances  occur  in  which  the 
pronoun,  in  such  cases,  is  put  in  the  plural,  and  thus  the  gender  is  concealed ; 
as,  "Then  shalt  thou  bring  forth  that  man  or  that  woman  unto  thy  gates,  and 
shalt  stone  them  with  stones,  till  they  shall  die." 


248  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

5.  When  each  of  the  coordinate  parts  is  denoted  by  the  same 
Word,  and  that  a  singular  noun  referring  to  different  objects,  and 
each,  except  the  last,  is  understood, — being  represented  by  some 
modifying  word, — the  agreement  of  the  verb  or  the  pronoun  follows 
the  general  rule. 

Ex. — "  A  Webster's,  a  Worcester's,  and  a  Richardson's  dictionary  were 
consulted ;"  that  is,  three  dictionaries.  A  literary,  a  scientific,  a  wealthy, 
and  a  poor  man  were  assembled  in  one  room. 

6.  Coordinate  terms  are  taken  separately  when  one  is  affirma- 
tive and  the  other  negative,  or  when  one  is  opposed  to,  or  con- 
trasted with,  the  others :  in  such  cases,  if  both  or  all  the  terms  are 
plural,  the  pronoun  or  the  verb  must,  of  course,  be  plural.  When 
a  verb  or  a  pronoun  relates  to  two  coordinate  terms,  connected  by 
as  well  as,  save,  but,  but  not,  or  and  not,  it  should  agree  with  the  for- 
mer, and  be  understood  with  the  latter,  whatever  be  its  number. 

Ex. — The  minutest  insect,  as  well  as  the  largest  quadruped,  derives 
its  life  from  the  same  omnipotent  source.  None  but  he  can  heal  the 
malady  of  the  soul.  There  was  no  stranger  with  us  in  the  house,  save 
we  two. 

7.  Two  terms  may  be  coordinate  logically  but  not  grammatically. 
Ex. — Godliness  with  contentment  is  great  gain,  =  Godliness  and  con- 
tentment, &c. 

In  such  cases  the  verb  or  the  pronoun  should  agree  with  the  term  to  which 
it  refers  grammatically. 

196.  Exercise. 

1.  Analyze  the  following  sentences,  and  point  out  and  parse  the  verbs 
and  the  pronouns  which  illustrate  the  rule : — 

Where  was  it  when  winds  and  clouds  were  his  only  visitors,  and 
when  the  sun  and  blue  heavens  by  day,  and  the  moon  and  stars  by 
night,  alone  looked  down  and  beheld  it,  the  same  as  they  behold  it 
now  ?  One  day  the  poor  woman  and  her  idiot  boy  were  missed 
from  the  market-place.  Neither  his  vote,  his  influence,  nor  his 
purse  was  ever  withheld  from  the  cause  in  which  he  had  engaged. 
Neither  the  captain  nor  the  sailors  were  saved.  Whether  one  per- 
son or  more  were  concerned  in  the  business,  does  not  appear. 
Every  insect,  and  every  bird,  was  hushed  to  silence. 

Note. — For  models,  see  178,  1,  and  180,  1,  Models  II.  and  III. 

2.  Construet  or  select  other  examples  to  illustrate  this  rule. 


SYNTAX — PREPOSITIONS.  249 


197.  Prepositions. 

1.  Rule  XIII. — A  preposition  is  used  to  show  the 
relation  of  its  object  to  the  word  on  which  the  object 
depends. 

Ex. — George  ivent  into  the  garden.  A  life  of  virtue  is  a  life  of  hap- 
piness. 

2.  The  noun  or  the  pronoun  following  the  preposition  is  always 
dependent  on  some  term, — usually  a  preceding  one, — and  the  pre- 
position is  used  to  show  that  dependence. 

Properly  speaking,  the  objective  is  not  the  object  of  the  preposition,  but 
of  the  preceding  term.  In  the  case  of  the  transitive  verb,  there  are  two 
terms, — the  verb  itself,  and  the  objective, — and  the  relation  between  them  is 
closer  than  between  those  in  which  the  preposition  is  used;  the  objective  is 
not  called  the  object  of  that  relation,  but  rather  of  the  antecedent  term,  the 
verb.     Yet  custom  makes  the  noun  the  object  of  the  preposition. 

3.  Sometimes  the  antecedent  term  is  omitted,  and  sometimes  the 
subsequent. 

Ex. — In  a  word,  he  is  ruined,  =  To  express  all  in  a  word,  &c.  "  He 
looked  around"  (supply  him). 

When  the  object  is  understood,  the  preposition  is  usually  parsed  as  an 
adverb. 

4.  For,  used  before  an  infinitive  and  its  objective  subject,  when 
the  group  is  taken  as  the  subject  of  a  proposition,  has  no  ante- 
cedent term. 

Ex. — For  him  to  lie  is  base. 

The  to  of  the  infinitive,  when  both  together  constitute  the  subject,  repre- 
sents no  relation  to  an  antecedent  term;  as,  '^To  lie  is  base." 

5.  Between  and  betwixt  refer  to  two  objects;  among  and  amongst, 
to  more  than  two. 

Ex. — He  walked  between  the  trees  (two  trees).  He  walked  among  the 
trees  (many  trees). 

6.  Sometimes  the  preposition  is  involved  in  the  antecedent  term, 
or  at  least  is  suggested  by  it. 

Ex. — Near  [io]  ;  like  [to].    Near  the  lake  where  drooped  the  willow. 

Remark. — When  the  proposition  is  placed  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence, 
or   when,   with   its   object,   it  preccdoi*    the  antecedent  term  of  the  relatisn 


250  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

which  it  shows,  the  relation  may  be  easily  discovered  by  rearranging  the 
sentence.  Thus,  "0/  all  the  topics  involved  in  this  theme,  it  will  be  im- 
possible for  me  to  speak,"  =  It  will  be  impossible  for  me  to  speak  of  all  the 
topics,  &c. 

Caution. — In  expressing  the  relations  between  words,  he  careful  to 
employ  appropriate  preposiiions.  Say,  "  That  is  different  from  what 
I  expected," — not  "different  to  what  I  expected." 

These  relations  may  be  found  in  any  good  dictionary. 


198.  Exercise. 

1.  Analyze  the  following  sentences,  and  parse  the  prepositions: — 

I  call  to  you  with  all  my  voice.  From  end  to  end,  from  cliff  to 
lake,  'twas  free.  Her  tears  were  now  flowing  without  control.  She 
is  like  some  tender  tree,  the  pride  and  beauty  of  the  grove, — grace- 
ful in  its  form,  bright  in  its  foliage,  but  with  the  worm  preying  at 
its  heart. 

Model. — "  Of  all  his  errors,  the  most  serious  was,  per- 
haps, the  choice  of  a  champion,"  =  "  The  most  serious 
[error]  of  all  his  errors  was,  perhaps,  the  choice  of  a 
champion." 

Analyze  and  parse  of. 

"0/""  is  a  preposition,  and  in  the  first  instance  shows  the  rela- 
tion of  "errors"  to  "error"  understood;  in  the  second  instance  it 
shows  the  relation  of  "  champion"  to  "  choice."  Eule  XIII.  (Ee- 
peat  it.) 

2.  Construct  examples  of  your  own  to  illustrate  the  use  of  the  pre- 
position when  the  antecedent  term  is  a  noun,  an  adjective,  a 

VERB,  an  ADVERB. 

199.  The  Object  of  the  Preposition. 

1.  Rule  XIV. — A  noun  or  a  pronoun  used  as  the 
object  of  a  preposition  must  be  in  the  objective  case. 

Ex. — The  ruins  of  the  Parthenon  stand  upon  the  Acropolis  in  the  city 
©f  Athens. 


SYNTAX — OBJECT   OF   THE   PREPOSITION.  251 

(a.)  Before  nouns  in  the  objective,  denoting  time,  mea- 
surej  distance,  quantity^  value,  or  direction,  and  before  such 
as  follow  near,  nigh,  like,  and  worth,  the  preposition  is 
usually  omitted. 

Ex. — The  wall  is  six  feet  high.  We  walked  twenty  miles  that  day. 
He  helped  a  worthy  man,  and  is  not  a  penny  poorer.  My  friend  has 
gone  West.  He  is  like  his  father.  They  live  near  the  city.  The  book 
is  worth  a  dollar. 

2.  The  preposition  is  omitted  as  in  187,  3;  and  in  dates  there 
is  usually  an  omission  of  several  prepositions. 

Ex. — [At]  Boston,  [on]  Monday,  [on]  the  10th  [of]  February,  [in 
the  year]  1860. 

Remark. — The  word  worth  is  by  some  called  a  preposition ;  but  it  can  be 
predicated  of  a  noun  like  an  adjective,  and  may  be  qualified  by  an  adverb; 
and,  what  is  more,  it  expresses  an  idea  of  quality,  rather  than  a  relation 
between  words ;  as,  "  The  lesson  is  well  worth  learning ;"  "  It  is  richly  worth 
the  money."  Worth  is  sometimes  a  noun,  and  sometimes  a  verb ;  as,  "  The 
worth  of  a  dollar;"  "A  person  of  great  worth;"  "Woe  loorth  the  day!"  In 
this  last  example,  loorth  is  a  verb  in  the  imperative,  equivalent  to  he  to,  and 
day  is  the  indirect  object  of  it. 

3.  But  and  save,  in  the  sense  of  "  except,"  are  generally  used  as 
prepositions. 

Ex. — Whence  all  hut  him  had  fled. 

Yet  they  are  not  unfrequently  used  as  conjunctions;  as,  "Neither  knoweth 
any  man  the  Father,  save  the  Son,  and  he  to  whomsoever  the  Son  will  reveal 
him." 

4.  Prepositions  are  sometimes  followed  by  adjectives,  or  adverbs 
used  substantively,  with  which  they  form  adverbial  phrases ;  as,  in 
vain,  on  high,  for  this  once,  till  now,  from  thence,  from  above. 

5.  Than  before  whom  has  been  erroneously  supposed  by  some  to 
be  a  preposition. 

Ex. — Than  whom  none  higher  sat. 

Than  is  no  more  a  preposition  here  than  in  case  of  any  other  proper  use 
of  the  word.  It  denotes  comparison,  and  the  construction  requires  that  it 
should  be  followed  by  the  nominative,  instead  of  the  objective  lohom.  Though 
used  by  some  good  writers,  it  should  be  avoided  as  anomalous.  In  this  case 
it  should  be  disposed  of  by  saying  that  it  is  the  objective  by  the  figure 
enallage  (216,  7). 

Cautiox. — Never  use  the  nominative  as  the  object  of  a  preposition. 
Say,  "Between  you  and  we,"— not  "between  you  and  /." 


252  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


200.  Exercise. 

1.  Analyze  the  following  examples ^  and  parse  the  prepositions  and 
their  objects : — 

A  similar  improvement  may  be  made  of  the  memory  of  our  good 
deeds.  What  ground  of  hope  is  there  so  sure  to  his  spirit,  next  to 
the  mercy  of  his  God  and  the  intercession  of  Christ  his  Saviour? 
It  was  not  long  before  he  returned  with  his  man,  whom  he  intro- 
duced to  me  as  a  person  of  exceeding  honesty;  and  we  went  into 
the  yard  all  together. 

Model. — "We  live  in  an  age  of  sifting." — Neander, 

Let  the  learner  analyze  this  sentence. 

Age  is  a  common  noun,  third,  sing.,  neut.,  obj.,  and  is  the  object 
of  the  preposition  "  in."     (Rule  XIV.) 

Sifting:  is  a  participial  noun,  in  the  objective  case,  and  is  used 
as  the  object  of  the  preposition  "  of."     (Rule  XIV.) 

2.  Construct  examples  in  which  any  of  the  prepositions  (l4o)  shall 
join  adjective  or  adverbial  phrases. 

3.  Change  the  phrases  consisting  of  a  preposition  and  its  object, 
into  equivalent  adjectives  or  adverbs  : — 

The  dew  of  the  morning  has  passed  away.  The  temple  of  Solo- 
mon was  destroyed  by  the  Chaldean  monarch.  The  messenger  was 
sent  in  haste.  The  laborer  entered  upon  his  task  ivith  eagerness. 
The  waves  dash  upon  the  rocks  with  fury. 

201.  Subordinate  Connectives. 

1.  Rule  XV. — Subordinate  connectives  are  used  to 
join  dissimilar  elements. 

Ex. — He  that  hath  pity  on  the  poor  lendeth  to  the  Lord. 

2.  Subordinate  connectives,  unlike  coordinate,  show  a  relation 
of  dependence,  and  are  used  to  join,  not  clauses  of  equal  rank,  but 
dependent  clauses  to  an  antecedent  term,  which  they  serve  to 
modify,  except  as  below  (3). 

3.  That,  whether,  or  the  various  interrogatives,  when,  where,  &c., 
when  used  to  introduce  a  substantive  clause  employed  as  the 
subject  of  a  proposition,  do  not  connect  the  clause  to  an  antecedent 


SYNTAX — SUBORDINATE   CONNECTIVES.  253 

term,  since  the  subject  can  be  subordinate  to  no  other  part  of  the 
proposition. 

The  connectives  thus  used  serve  to  convert  a  principal  proposition  into  a 
subordinate  substantive  proposition,  which,  like  any  noun,  may  be  used  as 
the  subject. 

4.  In  many  cases  the  subordinate  connective  has  a  correspond- 
ing word  in  the  principal  clause,  called  the  correlative. 

Ex. — Then  —  wheUy  there — vjhere,  if — then,  though — yet,  so  —  that, 
so  —  aSj  as  —  as,  the,  this,  that,  these,  those  —  who,  that,  or  ivhich. 

5.  Though  a  subordinate  conjunction  appropriately  joins  a  clause 
to  some  preceding  term,  yet  than  and  as  sometimes  appear  to  con- 
nect words  only. 

Ex. — IjesH  judgment  than  wit,  is  more  sail  than  ballast.  The  moon  as 
attends. 


Though  this  connection  seems  to  resemble  coordinate,  the  terms  joined 
are  not  of  the  same  rank.  As  has  a  peculiar  use  when  thus  employed  to 
connect  an  attribute,  either  predicated  or  assumed,  to  the  noun  to  which  it 
belongs :  it  not  only  gives  emphasis,  but  expresses  the  idea  of  capacity  or 
office;  as,  "He  was  employed  as  clerk."  "The  fruit  was  considered  as 
good."  "  He  offered  himself  as  printer."  "  I  do  not  respect  your  rules  as 
such."   "  What  is  a  pronoun  as  distinguished  from  a  noun  ?" 

6.  Than  or  as,  when  used  to  show  comparison,  instead  of  con- 
necting words  only,  generally  introduces  an  elliptical  clause,  which 
becomes  so  on  account  of  the  similarity  of  its  construction  to  that 
of  the  principal  clause. 

Ex. — "  He  is  more  nice  than  wise ;"  that  is,  "  than  he  is  wise."  "  He 
is  as  old  as  his  cousin ;"  that  is,  "  as  his  cousin  is  old." 

Sometimes  the  subsequent  term  is  not  only  elliptical,  but  abridged;  as, 
"The  patient  is  so  well  as  to  sit  up;"  that  is,  "so  well  as  that  he  can  sit  up." 
The  boy  knows  better  tha7i  to  disobey  (167,  Mod.  16,  Ex.). 

7.  As,  following  an  adjective,  and  sometimes  a  noun,  and  with- 
out a  correlative,  gives  an  adversative  signification  to  the  subordi- 
nate clause. 

Ex.  —  Defenceless  as  we  were,  we  still  maintained  our  ground,  = 
Though  we  were  defenceless,  &c. 

8.  That  or  as,  after  a  noun,  has  a  similar  construction  to  denote 
concession. 

Ex. — Fool  that  [or  as]  I  was,  I  entered  the  army. 

Remark.  •'—Subordinate   connectives  are   a   kind    of   prejwsition    placed 

22 


264  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR, 

before  a  sentence  which  is  to  be  converted  into  a  novn,  an  adjective,  or  aft 
adverb.  Hence  their  position  is  almost  invariably  at  the  head  of  the  clause 
(^re-position). 

Caution. — In  tising  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  in  an  elliptical  clause  foU 
loiving  THAN  or  AS,  avoid  both  ambiguity  and  an  incorrect  construction. 
Say,  "  My  brother  is  older  than  /," — not  "  than  me  J' 

There  is  danger  of  ambiguity  only  when  two  different  cases  occur  in  the 
principal  clause;  as,  "Lovest  thou  me  more  than  these?"  that  is,  "more  than 
these  love  me,"  or,  "  more  than  thou  lovest  these." 

202.  Exercise. 

1.  Analyze  the  following  examples^  and  parse  the  connectives: — 
While  there  is  life  there  is  hope.  However  friendly  he  might 
appear,  his  heart  was  full  of  anger.  Whether  the  moon  has  an 
atmosphere,  has  not  been  ascertained.  He  that  plants  trees  loves 
others  beside  himself.  What  comes  from  the  heart  goes  to  the 
heart.  Time  will  bring  to  light  whatever  is  hidden.  The  more 
we  serve  God,  the  better  we  serve  ourselves.  As  far  as  the  eye 
could  see,  all  was  ruin  and  desolation.  Work  as  long  as  you  can. 
/The  more  one  has,  the  more  he  requires.J  Eevenge  always  costs 
more  than  it  is  worth.  That  you  may  be  loved,  be  deserving  of 
love. 

Model  I. — "  If  we  draw  within  the  circle  of  our  con- 
templation the  mothers  of  a  civilized  nation,  what  do  we 
^Qef— Webster, 

This  is  a  complex  interrogative  sentence,  consisting  of  a  prin- 
cipal and  a  subordinate  clause. 

>Ve  is  the  subject  of  the  principal  clause,  and  do  see  is  the 
simple  predicate.  "Do  see"  is  limited  by  the  interrogative  "what,^^ 
and  by  the  conditional  clause  "If  we  draw,^'  &c. 

If  is  a  subordinate  connective,  and  joins  the  subordinate  clause, 
which  it  introduces,  to  the  predicate  of  the  principal  clause.  These 
elements  are  dissimilar  in  rank,  in  meaning,  and  in  form;  they  are 
connected  by  Eule  XV.     (Eepeat  it.) 

Model  II. — "As  ye  have  therefore  received  Christ 
Jesus  the  Lord,  so  walk  ye  in  him." 

Therefore,  in  this  complex  sentence,  is  a  coordinate  conjunction, 
joining  the  whole  sentence,  as  an  inference,  to  a  preceding  sentence. 


SYNTAX — THE   INFINITIVE.  255 

As  is  a  subordinate  connective,  having  as  its  correlative  the  ad- 
verb so  in  the  principal  clause.  It  joins  the  subordinate  clause, 
"  As  ye  have  therefore  received,"  &c.,  to  "  walk."    Kule  XV. 

2.  Construct  examples  in  which  any  of  the  relative  peonouns 
shall  join  adjective  clauses  (l43,  17), — others  in  which  that,  that 
NOT,  or  any  of  the  interrogatives,  shall  join  substantive  clauses  (l43, 16), 
— and  still  others  in  which  any  of  the  connectives  (l43, 18)  shall  join 
adverbial  clauses. 

203.  The  Infinitive. 

1.  Rule  XVI. — The  infinitive  has  the  construction 
of  the  nowif  with  the  signification  and  limitations  of  the 
verb,  and,  when  dependent,  is  governed  by  the  word 
which  it  limits. 

Ex. — To  err  is  human.  They  desire  to  travel  in  a  foreign  country. 
He  wishes  to  obtain  a  treatise  on  the  deposition  of  dew. 

(a.)  After  the  active  voice  of  bid,  dare,  let,  need,  make, 
see,  behold,  hear,  Sindfeel,  and  some  others,  the  to  of  the 
infinitive  is  omitted. 

Ex. — I  saw  him  do  it.     They  let  him  go. 

Remark  1. — The  infinitive  is  properly  the  simple  na7ne  of  the  verb,  and, 
as  such,  was  originally  used  without  a  preposition,  as  subject  or  object,  in  a 
proposition.  Of  these  uses,  we  have  the  form  of  one  only  remaining,  namely, 
that  of  object  after  the  auxiliaries  (111,  4);  as,  "shall  torite,"  "will  read," 
" do  love"  &c.  But  here  the  principal  verb  has  lost  its  original  character, — 
has  become  an  auxiliary,  a  mere  index  of  time  and  mode, — and  the  infinitive 
is  changed  from  object  to  attribute.  , 

Remark  2. — The  infinitive,  as  now  recognized  in  the  language,  is  the 
dative  case  of  the  ancient  infinitive;  or  the  simple  infinitive  with  the  preposi- 
tion to  prefixed.  The  two  words  are  so  united  as  to  be  regarded  as  an  in- 
separable phrase;  as,  "To  live  is  Christ,  and  to  die  is  gain." 

2.  The  infinitive  may  be  used  with  or  without  a  subject  (i67,  3). 
Ex. — We  wish  you  to  stay.     We  wish  to  stay. 

3.  The  infinitive  may  have  a  subject  in  the  objectiTe, 
when  its  subject  has  not  already  been  expressed  in  the 
sentence. 

Ex. — Thev  ordered  him  to  leave. 


256  ENGLISH   GEAMMAR 

{a.)  The  infinitive  of  the  copula  or  of  any  copulative  verb  may 
also  have  a  predicate  objective. 

Ex. — I  knew  him  to  be  a  preacher.     Let  him  be  called  Nathan. 

{b.)  The  infinitive,  and  its  subject,  may  be  the  (subject  of  a  pro- 
position ;  the  phrase  must  then  be  introduced  hy  for. 

Ex. — For  you  to  deceive  is  criminal.  For  him  to  be  a  scholar  is  im- 
possible. 

(c.)  The  infinitive  and  its  subject  may  be  made  the  object  of  a 
transitive  verb,  or  of  the  preposition /or. 

Ex. — He  ordered  the  horse  to  be  harnessed.  They  considered  Am  [to 
be]  a  traitor.  Tliey  appointed  him  [to  be]  chaiivnan.  They  ordered 
some  water /o?'  the  boy  to  drink. 

4.  When  the  subject  has  already  been  expressed  or  in 
not  required,  the  infinitive  is  used  without  a  subject,  and 
may  be, — 

{a.)  The  subject  of  a  proposition. 

Ex. — To  retaliate  is  censurable. 

[b.)  The  attribute  of  a  proposition  without  the  sign  to  (in,  4). 

Ex. — I  do  love.     They  may  learn. 

(c.)  The  attribute  of  a  proposition  with  to  prefixed. 

Ex. — To  obey  is  to  enjoy. 

When  the  infinitive  is  thus  used,  it  denotes, — (1.)  An  equivalent  term;  as, 
*' To  pray  is  to  supplicate."  (2.)  What  is  possible  or  obligatory;  as,  **  The 
passage  is  to  be  found;"  "Our  duty  is  to  be  done,"  (3.)  What  is  settled  or 
determined  upon  x  as,  "  The  work  is  to  commence  to-morroio." 

[d.)  The  object  of  a  transitive  verb,  a  preposition,  or  it  may  be 
Used  to  complete  the  meaning  of  some  intransitive  verbs. 

Ex. — He  wishes  to  remain.     They  are  about  to  go.     She  went  to  weep. 

[e.)  An  adjective  element  or  noun  in  apposition,  limiting 
another  noun. 

Ex. — Time  to  com£.  A  desire  to  go.  A  hope  to  recover.  A  wish 
to  stay. 

(/.)  An  adverbial  element  used  to  denote  purpose  or  motive. 

Ex. — What  went  ye  out  to  see? 

In  this  use  the  infinitive  is  sometimes  said  (though  perhaps  not  properly) 
to  be  absolute;  as,  "To  confess  the  truth,  I  was  in  fault,"'  =  That  I  may  confess 
ike  truth,  I  was  in  fault. 


SY:NTAX — THE   INFINITIVE.  257 

(g.)  To  denote  a  result,  after  too,  tban,  so  —  as. 

Ex.— He  is  too  proud  to  beg.  He  is  wiser  than  to  attempt  such  an 
enterprise.     Be  so  good  a^  to  hear  me. 

5.  Xhe  infinitive  is  often  understood. 
Ex. — They  considered  him  [to  be]  upright. 

Caution  I. — The  preposition  for  should  never  be  used  before  the 
infinitive  employed  to  express  motive  or  pnrpose;  also,  the  sign  to 
should  not  be  used  at  the  close  of  a  sentence.  Say,  "  He  went  to  see," — 
not  "/or  to  see."  "  He  spoke,  or  intended  to  speak," — not  "  He 
spoke,  or  intended  to." 

CaxTtion  II. — Do  not  use  tJie  perfect  for  the  present  infinitive. 
Say,  "  It  was  your  duty  to  warn  him," — not  "  to  have  warned  him." 


204.  Exercise. 

1.  Analyze  the  following  sentences,  and  parse  the  infinitives: — 
I  have  brought  a  book  for  you  to  read.  Johnson  declared  wit  to 
consist  in  finding  out  resemblances.  These  passages  prove  that 
materialists  will  sometimes  find  Hume  to  be  a  very  dangerous  ally. 
For  him  to  assert  and  deny  the  same  sentiment  on  different  pages 
is  proof  of  the  instability  of  his  opinions.  It  was  well  for  him  to 
die  at  his  post,  with  his  armor  on.  I  heard  him  repeat  whole  pages 
of  poetry.  Few  things  are  more  destructive  to  the  best  interests  of 
society  than  the  prevalent  but  mistaken  notion  that  it  requires  a 
vast  deal  of  talent  to  be  a  successful  knave.  It  is  a  disgrace  to  be 
the  author  of  such  a  report.  To  take  away  the  benevolent  affec- 
tions from  the  moral  world  would  be  like  extinguishing  the  sun 
from  the  natural.  I  love  to  roam  over  the  green  fields.  He  seems 
to  think  the  rule  inapplicable  to  his  case.  They  appear  to  rest 
upon  the  solid  earth.  A  desire  to  see  his  face  once  more  induced 
us  to  attempt  the  journey.  The  work  is  to  be  commenced  to-mor- 
row. To  be  good  is  to  be  happy.  They  remained  to  see  what  was 
to  be  done.  He  was  too  feeble  to  write  a  letter.  Will  you  be  so 
good  as  to  pass  me  that  book  ? 

Model  I. — "  To  see  the  sun  is  pleasant." 

Analyze  the  sentence,  and  parse  to  see  thus : — 

To  see  is  an  irregular  transitive  verb :  it  is  the  present  tense  of 
the  infinitive,  and  is  used  as  a  noun  of  the  third  pers.,  sing.,  neut., 
nom.,  and  is  made  the  subject  of  the  proposition.     Rule  XV. 
R  22* 


268  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Model  II. — "  I  have  heard  say  of  thee,  that  thou  canst 
understand  a  dream  to  interpret  it." — Bible. 

This  complex  sentence  has  an  infinitive  in  each  clause. 

Say  is  an  irregular  transitive  verb,  having  "  of  thee"  for  an  in- 
direct, and  the  subordinate  clause  for  a  direct,  object;  infinitive, 
present  tense,  and,  with  its  objective  subject  [men  understood), 
forms  the  object  of  "  have  heard."  Eule  XV.  See  also  5,  c.  It  is 
put  in  the  infinitive  without  the  sign  to,  by  Eule  XVI.  a. 

To  interpret  is  a  regular  transitive  verb,  infinitive,  present,  and 
is  used  to  limit  "canst  understand"  as  its  object,  by  Rule  XVI.  By 
an  ancient  idiom,  its  proper  object  is  made  the  object  of  the  prin- 
cipal verb,  and  is  then  pleonastically  represented  by  "it."  In 
modern  style  it  would  be,  "  understand  how  to  interpret  a  dream^^  of 
"  understand  a  dream  8o  as  to  interpret  it." 

2.  Construct  examples  of  your  own  to  illustrate  the  uses  of  the 
infinitive. 

205.  Participles. 

1.  Rule  XVII. — Participles  have  the  construction 
of  adjectives  and  nouns,  and  are  limited  like  verbs. 

Ex. — He,  stooping  down,  and  looking  in,  saw  the  linen  clothes  lying; 
yet  went  he  not  in.  A  habit  of  sincerity  in  acknowledging  faults  is  a 
guard  against  committing  them. 

2.  The  participle  used  as  an  adjective  assumes  of  its 
subject  what  the  verb  asserts. 

Ex. — Hyacinths  blooming.    Hyacinths  bloom. 

(a.)  When  the  participle  is  used  wholly  as  an  adjective  (93,  2,  b), 
it  is  called  &  participial  adjective,  and  is  placed  before  the  noun. 

Ex. — The  rising  sun.     The  roaring  billows. 

{b.)  When  the  participle  is  used  like  an  adjective,  having  the 
same  signification  and  limitations  as  the  verb,  the  participle,  with 
the  words  which  limit  it,  is  then  called  the  participial  construction. 

Ex. — Encouraged  by  this  magnificent  invitation,  the  inhabitants  of  the 
globe  considered  labor  as  their  only  friend. 

(c.)  The  participle  of  the  copulative  verbs  may  be  followed  by 
the  predicate  nominative,— (1.)  When  the  noun  or  the  pronoun  to 
which  it  belongs  is  nominative.  (2.)  When  the  noun  or  the  pro- 
noun to  which  it  logically  belongs  is  changed  to  the  possessive. 


SYNTAX — PARTICIPLES.  259 

Ex. — He  being  an  accomplished  write)-.  I  have  heard  of  his  being  an 
accomplished  writer. 

[d,]  The  participle  of  copulative  verbs  may  be  followed  by  a 
predicate  objective  when  the  noun  or  the  pronoun  to  which  it  belongs 
is  in  the  objective. 

Ex. — We  regarded  him  as  being  a  good  writer.  He  intrusted  his  son 
to  a  gentleman  named  Edric. 

{e.)  The  participle,  like  the  adjective,  may  be  used  with  the 
copula,  to  form  the  predicate ;  but  in  this  construction  it  is  regarded 
as  a  form  of  the  verb. 

Ex. — They  were  riding.     He  was  deceived. 

(/.)  Participles,  such  as  admitting,  speaking,  granting,  and  others, 
are  used,  as  some  say,  independently ;  more  properly  they  belong 
to  some  noun  or  pronoun  understood. 

Ex. — Properly  speaking,  there  is  no  such  thing  as  chance,  =  We 
speaking  properly,  &c. 

3.  The  participle  may  be  used  either  wholly  as  a  noun, 
or  as  a  noun  having  the  meaning  and  limitations  of  the 
verb. 

Ex. — It  is  pleasant  to  walk  at  the  rising  of  the  sun.  We  should 
avoid  giving  pain  to  others. 

{a.)  The  participle  used  wholly  as  a  noun  is  preceded  by  an 
article  or  an  adjective,  and  followed  by  of. 

Ex. — The  sighing  of  the  poor.     The  crying  of  the  needy. 
In  this  case  the  participle  cannot  be  limited,  like  the  verb. 

{h.)  The  participle  having  the  construction  of  the  noun,  with 
the  meaning  and  limitations  of  the  verb,  may  be  the  subject  or  pre- 
dicate nominative,  or  the  object  of  a  transitive  verb  or  a  preposition. 

Ex. — Loving  our  neighbor  as  ourselves  is  fulfilling  the  law.  Stealing 
is  taking  without  liberty.  We  should  avoid  breaking  a  promise.  On 
approaching  the  house,  the  sound  of  a  bell  was  faintly  heard. 

(c.)  In  this  construction  the  participle  is  called  the  participial 
noun,  and,  as  such,  may  be  limited  by  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  in  the 
possessive. 

Ex. — What  do  you  think  of  his  ivriting  a  letter,  —  his  being  a  writer  ? 

4.  The  participle,  like  the  Latin  gerund,  may  limit  the 


260 


ENGLISH   GEAMMAE. 


predicate   by  expressing  a  concomitant   action,  yet   may 
belong  grammatically  to  the  subject. 

Ex. — They  remain  standing.  He  stood  amazed.  He  fell  at  his 
master's  feet,  weeping. 

5.  The  participle  is  often  equivalent  to  the  infinitive. 

Ex. — We  saw  them  approaching  the  shore,  =  approach  the  shore. 

206.  Exercise. 

Arialyze  the  following  examples,  and  parse  the  participles : — 
We  expect  the  dancing-master  to  teach  our  children  "  manners," 
as  well  as  the  art  of  cutting  awkward  capers  to  music.  Why  is  the 
experiment  of  an  extended  republic  to  be  rejected?  He  came  near 
being  devoured  by  a  panther.  The  case  is  well  worth  considering. 
They  came  upon  him  without  his  being  apprized  of  their  approach. 
The  urchin's  becoming  so  respectable  a  man  surprised  every  one. 
The  gentleman's  reputation  as  a  scholar  was  the  cause  of  his  being 
appointed  professor  of  rhetoric.  They  narrowly  escaped  being 
taken  prisoners.  Being  convinced  of  his  guilt,  we  resolved  to 
punish  him.  We  descried  a  vessel  stripped  of  its  masts.  Having 
declined  the  proposal,  I  determined  on  a  course  suited  to  my  own 
taste.  They  have  said.  Come,  and  let  us  cut  them  off  from  being  a 
nation.  There  is  no  doubt  of  his  being  a  great  statesman.  The 
young  maiden  was  seen  standing  on  the  shore,  exposed  to  the  merci- 
less winds,  and  extending  her  hands  towards  heaven.  Whom 
having  not  seen,  ye  love ;  in  whom,  though  now  ye  see  him  not, 
yet,  believing,  ye  rejoice.  In  avoiding  one  error,  do  not  fall  into 
another.  By  consulting  the  best  authors,  hie  became  learned. 
Stretching  from  horizon  to  horizon,  losing  itself,  like  a  limitless 
wall,  in  the  clouds  above,  it  came  pouring  its  green  and  massive 
waters  onward,  while  the  continual  and  rapid  crash  of  falling 
forests,  and  crushed  cities,  and  uptorn  mountains,  thus  prostrated, 
one  after  another,  under  its  awful  power,  and  the  successive  shrieks 
that  pierced  the  heavens,  rising  even  above  the  roar  of  the  on-rush- 
ing ocean,  as  city  after  city,  kingdom  after  kingdom,  disappeared, 
produced  terror  and  horror  inconceivable,  indescribable. 

Model  I. — "Immured  in  cypress  shades  a  sorcerer 
dwells." — Milton, 

Let  the  learner  analyze  the  sentence.  It  is  a  simple  sentence,  or 
may  be  regarded  as  a  contracted  complex. 


SYNTAX — INCOKEECT   USE.  26 1 

Immured  is  a  passive  participle,  or  past  participle  with  a  passive 
meaning  {immure,  immured,  immured),  and,  like  an  adjective, 
belongs  to  "  sorcerer,"  by  Rule  XVII.,  or  Rule  V. 

Model  II. — "  The  admiral  was  too  desirous  of  present- 
ing himself  before  the  sovereigns  to  protract  his  stay  long 
at  Palos." — Frescott. 

This  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence.  The  subject  is  "  the  admi- 
ral ;"  the  simple  predicate  is  "  was  desirous,"  of  which  "  was"  is  the 
copula  and  "  desirous"  the  attribute.  The  attribute  is  limited  by 
"  of  presenting  himself  before  the  sovereigns,"  an  indirect  objective 
element,  complex,  of  which  "of  presenting"  is  the  basis,  "of"  is 
the  connective,  and  "presenting"  is  the  object.  "Presenting"  is 
limited,  first,  by  the  objective  element  "  himself,"  and  second,  by 
the  complex  adverbial  element "  before  the  sovereigns."  "  Desirous" 
is  further  limited  by  "  too,"  which  intimates  the  degree  or  intensity 
of  his  desire,  and  points,  as  a  kind  of  correlative,  to  the  phrase  "to 
protract  his  stay  long  at  Palos,"  used  to  express  the  result  of  the 
desire.  It  expresses  a  kind  of  comparison,  and  is  equivalent  to 
another  construction  with  so  —  as  not,  thus : — so  desirous  as  not  to 
protract,  &c. 

Presenting  is  a  present  participle,  from  the  verb  present  { present ^ 
presented,  presented),  used  as  a  noun,  and  is  the  object  of  the  pre- 
position of,  by  Rule  XIV.,  and  is  limited  according  to  Rule  XVII., 
like  the  verb  "  present,"  from  which  it  is  derived. 

Construct  examples  of  your  own  illustrating  the  various  uses  of  the 
participle. 

II.  IXCORRECT  USE. 

207.  Incorrect  Use  defined. 

1.  The  incorrect  use  of  words  is  any  violation  of  the 
laws  of  good  usage.     It  is  commonly  called  fake  syntax. 

Remark. — It  must  be  apparent  to  every  one  that  the  mere  rules  of  Syntax 
do  not  guard  against  some  of  tho  most  glaring  defects  in  the  use  of  spoken 
or  written  language.  To  provide  for  some  of  the  most  obvious  of  those, 
special  cautions  will  be  given. 

2.  Besides  a  faulty  construction,  there  may  be  errors  in  spelling, 
pronunciation,  or   the  use  of  capitals,  errors   in   the  application  of 


262-  ENGLISH   GEAMMAR. 

words,  errors  arising  from  an  improper  omission  or  a  repetition  of 
words,  from  an  insertion  of  unnecessary  words,  an  improper  arrange- 
ment of  the  parts,  and  errors  from  a  neglect  of  any  of  the  dis- 
tinguishing marks  which  good  usage  requires. 


208.  Errors  in  Coustniction.— False  Syntax. 

1.  Examples  under  Eule  I. 

You  and  me  will  go  together. 

Model. — "  You  and  me  will  go  together"  is  incorrect,  because 
the  objective  pronoun  me  is  made  the  subject  of  the  verb  will  go; 
but,  by  Caution  I.,  the  objective  should  never  be  used  as  the  subject 
of  a  finite  verb.     Correct,  "  You  and  I  will  go  together." 

Him  that  is  studious  w411  improve.  She  found  the  place  sooner 
than  us.  Them  that  seek  wisdom  will  be  wise.  They  are  people 
whom  one  would  think  might  be  trusted.  Who  told  you  the  story  ? 
Him  and  her.  I  know  it  as  well  as  him  or  her.  Who  saw  the 
eclipse  ?  Us.  Them  are  the  ones.  My  brother  is  a  much  better 
singer  than  him.  We  are  not  so  much  to  be  blamed  as  him  that 
upset  the  boat.  Who  came  in  at  the  door  ?  Me.  Scotland  and 
thee  did  each  in  other  live.  Avoid  whomsoever  is  in  a  passion. 
There  were  present  only  him  and  me.  You  are  in  fault,  and  not 
me.    I  know  not  whom  are  expected. 

Us  boys  are  forming  a  base-ball  club.  Him  and  me  are  going  to 
town  this  afternoon.  Mary  can  walk  faster  than  me.  I  will  pro- 
mote him  who  I  think  most  deserving.  Whom  do  you  think  called 
on  me  this  morning?  Not  always  does  the  world  applaud  him  who 
is  most  deserving  of  praise ;  but  him  who  is  most  successful  receives 
the  homage  of  men.  Thee  must  not  forget  my  advice.  She  is  a 
lady  whom  I  know  will  interest  you. 

2.  Examples  under  Rule  II. 

It  is  her. 

I  took  it  to  be  he. 

You  is  the  second  person. 

Models. — "  It  is  her"  is  incorrect,  because  the  attribute  "  her"  is 
in  the  objective  case ;  but,  by  Caution  I.,  the  attribute  of  a  finite 
verb  should  never  be  in  the  objective  case.  It  should  be,  "  It  is 
she." 

"I  took  it  to  be  he"  is  incorrect,  because  the  nominative  "he" 


SYNTAX — ERRORS    IN   CONSTRUCTION.  263 

follows  the  infinitive  "  to  b«,"  preceded  by  its  objective  subject  "  it." 
By  Caution  I.,  it  should  be,  "  I  took  it  to  be  him^ 

"  You  is  the  second  person"  is  incorrect,  because  "  you,"  being  a 
pronoun,  is  not  a  person,  and  hence  is  falsely  identified  by  "  person." 
By  Caution  II.,  we  should  avoid  such  constructions.  It  should  be, 
"  You  is  of  the  second  person,"  that  is,  a  pronoun  of  the  second 
person. 

Correct,  hy  the  Catttions,  not  only  the  following  examples,  hut  any 
similar  ones  heard  in  conversation : — 

Is  it  me?  No ;  but  it  is  him.  I  never  thought  of  its  being  him ; 
I  took  it  to  be  she.  Whom  do  you  think  it  is  ?  It  may  have  been 
her,  but  I  always  supposed  it  to  be  he.  Whom  do  people  say  it  is  ? 
They  say  they  do  not  know  whom  it  is.  Who  do  you  think  it  is  ? 
I  think  it  is  them.  I  cannot  believe  it  to  be  he.  If  I  were  him, 
I  would  know  whom  it  is.  If  I  had  been  sure  of  its  being  her, 
I  should  have  been  present. 

The  noun  is  the  agent,  and  the  verb  is  the  action.  What  part  ot 
speech  is  each  boy  in  this  room  ?  The  first  person  is  the  speaker. 
The  animal  horse  is  a  noun.  To  be  convicted  of  bribery,  was  then 
a  crime  altogether  unpardonable.  /  is  the  first  person.  "  Have 
written"  is  the  present  perfect  tense. 

It  was  me  who  told  you.  It  is  not  us  who  are  in  fault.  If  I 
were  her,  I  would  talk  less.  Whom  do  men  say  that  I  am  ?  It  was 
George  that  answered  you,  not  me.  They  had  no  suspicion  of  its 
being  me.  They  were  a  long  time  in  doubt  whom  he  might  prove 
to  be.  It  is  us  who  suffer  by  your  carelessness.  It  is  not  I,  but  him, 
you  ought  to  blame. 

3.  Examples  under  Eule  III. 

Correct  hy  177, 1,  a,  b,  and  the  several  Cautions,  the  following  ex- 
amples, and  avoid  all  similar  errors  yourself: — 

The  committee  were  unanimous  in  its  action.  The  army  w^as 
badly  cut  up,  but  made  good  their  retreat.  Let  every  chair,  every 
book,  and  every  slate  be  put  in  their  places.  Peace  and  happiness 
are  by  no  means  granted  to  the  rich  alone ;  yet  it  is  supposed  by 
many  to  depend  upon  wealth.  The  president  or  secretary  will 
favor  us  with  their  presence.  Many  words  they  darken  speech. 
That  girl  she  is  very  ignorant.  The  king  he  is  very  angry.  The 
teacher  approving  the  plan,  he  immediately  adopted  it.  Whom 
when  they  had  washed,  they  laid  her  in  an  upper  chamber.     What 


264  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

he  said,  he  is  now  sorry  for  it.  Let  each  scholar  who  thinks  so 
raise  their  hands.  A  person  can  content  themselves  on  small 
means.  Let  every  one  answer  fox  themselves.  Rebecca  took  goodly 
raiment,  and  put  them  upon  Jacoli  Can  any  one  be  sure  that  they 
are  not  deceived  ?  Thou  hast  60  right  to  be  a  judge,  who  art  a 
party  concerned.  A  hawk  caught  a  hen,  and  eat  her  in  her  own 
nest.  A  purse  was  lost  in  the  street,  which  contained  a  large  sum 
of  money.  There  are  millions  of  people  in  the  empire  of  China 
whose  support  is  derived  almost  entirely  from  rice.  I  and  you  may 
go,  if  I  and  he  can  agree.  I  and  you  and  Harriet  are  going. 
Father  said  that  I  and  Henry  should  stay  at  home.  Horace  and 
I  and  you  are  invited.  There  was  a  certain  householder  which 
planted  a  vineyard.  He  has  a  soul  who  cannot  be  influenced  by 
such  motives.  This  is  the  dog  whom  my  father  bought.  The  lady 
which  we  saw  was  highly  educated.  He  has  some  friends  which  I 
am  acquainted  with.  The  judge  which  pronounced  the  sentence 
was  an  upright  man.  Those  which  desire  to  be  happy  should  be 
careful  to  do  that  which  is  right.  Though  thou  art  wise,  you  some- 
times misjudge.  Do  thyself  no  harm,  and  no  one  will  harm  you. 
This  is  the  man  who  discovered  our  distress,  and  that  brought  us 
relief.  I  know  you  whom  thou  art,  that  annoyest  me  at  thy  gate. 
O  thou  who  art  all-wise,  and  that  rulest  over  all !  I  labored  long 
to  make  thee  happy,  and  now  you  reward  me  by  ingratitude.  Let 
no  boy  or  girl  drop  her  pencil.  James  and  you  must  attend  to  his 
studies. 

If  any  of  you  have  aught  to  say  against  this  man,  let  them  now 
speak.  I  paid  for  the  molasses,  and  the  grocer  said  he  would  send 
them  immediately.  What  one  of  you  can  sit  silent  when  they 
hear  their  friend  abused?  Each  of  you  may  choose  for  yourself. 
If  any  one  calls,  tell  them  I  am  not  at  home.  England  expects 
every  man  to  do  their  duty.  Please  examine  my  watch,  and  see 
what  ails  her.  Now  you  have  heard  the  news,  what  do  you  think 
of  them?  Wealth  and  poverty  have  its  temptations.  Neither  the 
Greek  nor  the  Roman  had  cooking-stoves  in  their  houses.  Every 
drafted  man  or  his  substitute  reported  themselves  on  the  day 
appointed.  When  a  rat  is  driven  into  a  corner,  they  will  often 
turn  and  fight  furiously.  It  is  impossible  to  fix  the  exact  number 
of  known  languages,  but  its  number  can  hardly  be  less  than  nine 
hundred.  Horace  as  well  as  Juvenal  satirized  the  follies  of  their 
age.  Milo  began  to  lift  the  ox  when  he  was  a  calf.  He  is  the  same 
person  whom  I  took  him  to  be. 


SYNTAX — ERRORS   IN   CONSTRUCTION.  265 


4.  Examples  under  Eule  IV. 

Correct  by  179,  1,  a,  6,  and  the  Cautions^  the  following  examples^ 
and  be  careful  to  avoid  all  similar  ei^ors  : — 

Where  was  you  this  morning  when  I  called?  He  dare  you  to  do 
it.  They  was  unwilling  to  go.  Eelatives  agrees  with  their  ante- 
cedents. There's  ten  of  us  going.  Was  you  certain  of  it?  We 
was  allowed  the  privilege.  Circumstances  alters  cases.  Has  those 
books  been  sent  home?  The  committee  has  accepted  their  appoint- 
ment. The  majority  was  disposed  to  adopt  the  measure  which  they 
at  first  opposed.  Blessed  is  the  people  that  know  the  joyful  sound. 
The  fleet  were  seen  sailing  up  the  channel,  where  afterwards  it 
anchored,  ,The  peasantry  goes  barefoot  without  endangering  their 
health.  The  public  is  requested  to  attend  for  their  own  benefit. 
The  church  have  no  power  to  adopt  the  measure  which  it  advo- 
cates. Thinks  I  to  myself,  I'll  do  it.  Yes,  says  I,  we'll  go 
together.  Oh,  dear  me,  says  I,  (as  vulgarly  contracted,  "  Oh,  dear 
me,  suz.")  The  derivation  of  these  words  are  uncertain.  The 
story,  with  all  its  additions,  were  believed.  The  increase  of  his 
resources  render  the  change  necessary.  The  number  of  applicants 
increase.  The  general,  with  all  his  soldiers,  were  taken.  The  sale 
of  the  goods  take  place  to-morrow.  The  hope  of  retrieving  his 
losses  increase  his  diligence.  I  seen  him  when  he  done  it.  Some 
one  has  broke  my  pencil.  Tell  them  to  set  still.  She  laid  down 
by  the  fire.  He  soon  begun  to  be  weary  of  the  employment.  I 
am  going  to  lay  down.  Mary  has  wrote  a  letter.  I  see  him  when 
he  went.  Ain't  it  true?  We  ain't  going  this  evening.  He  has 
drank  too  much.  The  tree  has  fell.  You  have  not  did  as  I  told 
you.  John  has  stole  the  knife.  They  are  going  to  our  house 
next  week.  He  give  me  a  great  many  books.  He  knowed  his 
lesson  better  than  Henry.  They  had  sang  very  well.  I  have  lain 
your  book  on  the  shelf.  Will  you  sit  the  pitcher  on  the  table,  and 
let  it  set  there?  The  ship  lays  in  the  harbor.  I  done  my  sums 
first. 

There  is  six  cents  to  pay  you  for  your  trouble,  my  little  man. 
Why  did  you  say  you  was  coming?  There  was  four  of  us  went  a 
fishing.  "  Spare  Hours"  were  written  by  Dr.  John  Brown,  This 
fashion  is  one  of  the  most  foolish  that  ever  was  imposed  on  us. 
A  band  of  robbers  were  captured  by  means  of  a  little  negro  boy. 
Forest  after  forest  fall  before  the  axe  of  the  white  man.  Not  a 
feature,  not  a  muscle,  were  seen  to  move.    The  night  was  dark: 

23 


266  ENGLISH   GRAMMAB. 

neither  moon  nor  star  were  visible.  There  was  no  data  given.  Tht 
ladder  was  forty  foot  long.  There  have  been  quite  an  increase  in 
the  receipt  of  butter.  Nearly  six  thousand  head  of  cattle  was 
brought  to  New  York  market  last  week.  A  number  of  distin- 
guished people  was  present.  The  mob  were  composed  of  the 
worst  characters  in  the  city.  There  seems  to  be  no  good  reasons 
for  refusing.  Three  months'  probation  are  enough  to  decide  it. 
He  dare  not  touch  a  hair  of  Catiline. 

5.  Examples  under  Eule  V. 

Correct  the  following  examples  by  the  principles  and  Cautions 
under  Rule  V. : — 

He  found  a  acorn  in  the  woods.  He  was  a  honorable  man.  It 
is  an  wonderful  invention.  He  is  an  younger  man  than  we 
thought.  She  showed  an  uniform  adherence  to  truth.  This  is 
an  hard  saying. 

I  do  not  like  remarks  of  these  kind.  Those  sort  of  people  are 
very  disagreeable.  Will  you  buy  six  pair  of  boots?  I  have 
bought  eight  foot  of  wood.  It  cost  a  thousand  pound.  The  lot  is 
fifty  foot  in  width.  The  water  is  six  fathom  deep.  We  walked 
three  mile  in  a  short  time.     He  ordered  ten  ton  of  coal. 

I  found  them  books  on  the  table.  Which  of  them  scholars  recites 
the  best?  Go  and  tell  them  boys  to  come  here.  Ask  them  children 
to  bring  them  apples  here. 

She  dresses  neat.  The  time  passed  very  quick.  The  ship  glides 
smooth  over  the  water.  The  stream  flows  silent  on.  It  is  not  such 
a  great  distance  as  I  thought  it  was.  He  behaved  much  wiser  than 
the  others.  Mary  speaks  French  very  fluent.  I  am  exceeding 
sorry  to  hear  such  tidings. 

He  was  the  larger  of  them  all.  He  was  the  oldest  of  the  two 
brothers.  He  preferred  the  latter  of  the  three.  Which  is  the 
oldest  of  the  two?    John  is  the  wisest  of  the  two. 

After  the  most  straitest  sect  of  our  religion  I  lived  a  Pharisee. 
This  was  the  most  unkindest  cut  of  all.  The  rose  is  most  fairest 
of  all  flowers.  The  chief  of  the  Arabian  tribes  is  styled  the  sheik. 
The  chief  magistrate  is  called  the  emperor.  He  was  an  abler 
financier  than  a  negotiator. 

You  cannot  mix  the  oil  and  the  water.  The  imagination  is 
necessary  to  the  poet.  The  fire  is  a  useful  servant,  but  a  hard 
master,  to  a  man.  A  pen  is  mightier  than  a  sword.  A  lion  is 
sometimes  called  a  king  of  beasts.    The  time  and  the  tide  wait  for 


SYNTAX — ERRORS   IN   CONSTRUCTION.  267 

no  man.  He  examined  every  phenomena  with  the  eye  of  a  phi- 
losopher. He  was  much  pleased  wdth  these  good  news.  Bring  me 
a  thimble  and  scissors.  The  grizzly  bear,  as  well  as  buffalo,  are 
natives  of  North  America.  The  ship  displayed  a  red  and  white 
signal,  and  we  distinctly  saw  them  both.  The  elephant  has  a 
powerful  and  a  flexible  trunk,  which  he  always  carries  with  him  on 
a  journey.  I  cannot  buy,  for  I  have  a  little  money.  I  could  buy 
it  if  I  chose ;  for  I  have  little  money  yet.  The  carpenter  forgot  to 
bring  his  ten-feet  pole.  I  counted  thirteen  sails  of  vessels  lying  at 
anchor  in  the  stream.  The  apple  tastes  sweetly.  Industry  and 
Frugality  are  Fortune's  servants :  this  acquires  wealth,  that  saves 
it.     Just  taste  of  those  molasses. 

I  bought  an  Andrew's  and  a  Stoddard's  Latin  Grammar,  and  left 
it  in  the  book-store.  What  sort  of  an  animal  is  a  mink?  It  is  a 
kind  of  a  quadruped.  We  were  charmed  with  Everett,  the  orator, 
the  statesman,  and  the  diplomatist.  One  would  think  him  a  better 
pupil  than  a  teacher.  At  the  North  and  South  Poles  the  latitude 
is  90°,  and  longitude  from  0°  to  180°.  Let  us  honor  our  flag, — the 
red,  the  white,  and  the  blue.  The  administration  of  Washington 
and  establishment  of  the  government  formed  an  important  era  in 
our  history.  He  did  not  demand  the  principal,  but  interest.  He 
delivered  the  address  clear  and  distinct.  How  do  you  do?  I  am 
some  better;  my  health  is  tolerable  good.  He  rode  past  so  quick  I 
scarce  saw  him.  You  do  not  treat  me  polite.  The  bear  had  not 
been  fed  for  two  days,  and  he  began  to  growl  savage.  How  did 
Walter  perform  his  part?    Very  good. 

6.  Examples  under  Eule  VI. 
Correct^  by  the  rule,  the  following  examples : — 

I  am  going  to  see  my  friends  in  the  country,  they  that  we  visited 
last  summer.  Washington  will  be  remembered  by  our  posterity  as 
him  w^ho  was  the  father  of  his  country.  The  Echo  Song  was  sung 
by  Jenny  Lind,  she  who  delighted  the  whole  country. 

He  is  writing  the  life  of  Cromwell, — not  the  Protector,  but  he 
who  was  the  friend  and  pupil  of  Wolsey,  and  afterwards  minis- 
ter of  Henry  VIII.  He  treats  me  ill, — I,  who  would  so  gladly  serve 
him. 


268  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

7.  Examples  under  Kule  VII. 

Correct  the  following  examples  by  the  Cautions : — 

On  Lindens  hills  of  blood-stained  snow.  It  was  the  grand 
Bultans  palace.  The  nations  hopes  were  blasted.  Next  Mars, 
Piazzis  orb,  is  seen.  It  is  against  the  laws  of  Plutos  empire.  His 
brothers  offence  is  not  his.  Midst  glorys  glance  and  victorys 
thunder-shout.  The  mans  story  was  false.  If  of  Drydens  fire 
the  blaze  is  brighter,  of  Popes  the  heat  is  more  regular  and 
constant. 

This  book  is  your's.  I  listened  to  it's  song.  The  slate  is  hisn. 
This  map  is  theirn.  This  knife  is  mine,  and  not  yourn.  That 
handkerchief  is  hern.  These  sheep  are  oiirn.  Will  you  drive 
yourn  out  of  the  pasture?    Our's  is  a  pleasant  task. 

I  will  do  it  for  your  sakes.  We  intend,  for  our  parts,  to  follow 
his  advice.  Their  healths  have  improved.  We  will  submit  to  our 
lots.    It  was  not  worth  their  whiles  to  remain  so  long  in  port. 

After  a  pleasant  two  hours  sail,  we  went  ashore  to  lunch.  Please 
call  at  Little's  and  Brown's  book-store  and  get  me  the  last  Galaxy. 
His  friends  opposed  him  going  into  the  army.  Which  is  the 
neatest  boot,  your  boot  or  my  boot?  This  is  a  book  of  my  friend. 
The  elephant  and  beaver's  instinct  approaches  closely  to  reason. 
James  sister  thinks  too  much  of  dress.  I  would  like  to  see  that 
saucy  servant  of  your's.    That  is  a  robin,  thrush,  or  sparrow's  nest 

8.  Examples  under  Kule  VIII. 

Correct  the  following  examples  by  the  rule: — 

Who  did  you  see  yesterday?  Who  did  he  marry?  They  that 
help  us  we  should  reward.  He  who  committed  the  offence  thou 
ehj^uldst  punish,  not  I,  who  am  innocent.  Who  should  I  find  but 
my  cousin?  Will  you  let  him  and  I  sit  together?  I  did  not  know 
who  to  send. 

Let  him  and  I  row  the  boat  back.  I  can't  tell  who  you  mean. 
Let  the  able-bodied  men  fight,  and  they  that  are  feeble  do  guard 
duty  at  home.  Ye  have  ever  been  my  friends,  and  ye  only  will  I 
trust.  Both  candidates  are  popular  men,  and  it  is  quite  doubtful 
who  the  people  will  choose.  He  that  made  the  last  speech  the 
audience  cheered. 

9.  Examples  uiojer  Eule  IX. 
Correct,  by  the  Cautions ,  the  following  examples: — 
I  "?rill  not  take  that  course  by  no  means.    I  did  not  like  neither 


I 


SYNTAX — ERROKS    IN    CONSTRUCTION.  269 

his  principles  nor  his  practice.  I  cannot  write  no  more.  Nothing 
never  can  justify  such  conduct.  He  will  never  be  no  better, 
Neither  he  nor  no  one  else  believes  the  story.  I  never  go  no- 
wheres.  I  am  resolved  not  to  trust  him,  neither  now,  nor  any- 
other  time.  No  one  knows  neither  the  causes  nor  the  effects  of 
such  influences. 

His  expressions  sounded  harshly.  Satin  feels  very  smoothly. 
Give  him  a  soon  and  decisive  answer.  Such  incidents  are  of  seldom 
occurrence.  The  then  emperor  issued  a  decree.  Did  he  arrive 
safely  and  sound?    She  seemed  beautifully. 

Know  now  whether  this  be  thy  son's  coat,  or  no?  Tell  me 
whether  I  shall  do  it,  or  no.     I  w^ill  ascertain  if  it  is  true,  or  no. 

He  said  how  he  believed  it.  She  told  me  how  that  she  would 
come  if  she  could.     He  remarked  how  time  was  valuable. 

I  will  send  thee  far  from  hence  to  the  Gentiles.  George  wrote  a 
description  of  our  picnic  where  he  mentions  all  of  us  under  assumed 
names.  I  never  got  no  favors  in  the  army.  It  isn't  good  for  pear- 
trees  nor  apple-trees  to  trim  them  often.  He  delivered  the  address 
clear  and  distinct. 

10.  Examples  ui^der  Rule  X. 

Oh,  unfortunate  me !  why  did  I  not  heed  your  counsel  ?  Me  ex- 
cepted, they  were  all  members  of  the  club.  Him  guiding,  we  took 
the  forest-path  in  confidence.  They  refused  to  begin  the  contest, 
us  absent.     Them  assisting,  the  performance  will  be  successful. 

11.  Examples  under  Rule  XI. 
Correct  the  following  examples  by  the  Cautions : — 
They  confess  the  power  and  wisdom  and  love  and  goodness  of 
their  Creator.     John  and  James  and  Henry  and  Charles  will  re- 
turn this  evening.     His  conduct  was  unkind  and  unjust  and  un- 
merciful. 

He  neither  came  nor  was  sent  for.  We  pervert  the  noble  faculty 
of  speech  when  we  use  it  to  the  defaming,  or  to  disquiet  our  neigh- 
bors. We  hope  that  we  shall  hear  from  him,  and  that  he  has  re- 
turned. I  always  have  and  I  always  shall  be  of  this  opinion. 
The  work  was  executed  with  rapidity  and  promptly.  It  is  a  re- 
gion distinguished  by  many  charming  varieties  of  rural  scenery, 
and  which  may  be  termed  the  Arcadia  of  Scotland.  He  retired 
voluntarily,  and  a  conqueror. 

23* 


270  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Are  we  not  lazy  in  our  duties,  or  make  a  Christ  of  them  ?  In 
many  pursuits  we  embark  with  pleasure  and  land  sorrowfully. 

It  is  a  good  which  neither  depends  on  the  will  of  others  nor  on 
the  affluence  of  external  fortune.  Either  sentences  are  simple  or 
compound.  His  fortune  has  not  only  suffered  by  his  folly,  but  his 
health.    This  is  not  merely  a  question  of  interest,  but  of  right  also. 

He  was  not  a  rich  man,  and  he  is  good  to  the  poor.  A  man  may 
smile  and  smile,  and  he  is  a  villain.  Charles  V.  retired  to  a  con- 
vent, and  chess  is  a  fascinating  game.  Back  to  thy  punishment, 
false  fugitive  I  and  to  thy  speed  you  may  add  wings.  Genius  hews 
out  its  figure  from  the  block,  and  with  the  sleepless  chisel  he  gives 
it  life.  Neither  Whigs  or  Tories  foresaw  the  bad  effects  of  the 
passage  of  the  bill.    No  one  gave  his  opinion  as  modestly  as  he. 

12.  Examples  under  Ruxes  XIII.  and  XIV. 
Correct,  by  the  Cautions,  the  following  examples: — 
I  am  engaged  with  my  work.  Mesopotamia  lies  among  two 
rivers.  I  left  my  book  to  home.  Come  in  my  house.  They  insist 
on  it  that  you  are  wrong.  My  friend  has  a  strong  prejudice  to  the 
candidate.  That  mother  is  too  indulgent  with  her  child.  With 
what  are  you  so  intent?  We  should  profit  from  the  experience  of 
others.  That  boy  is  not  careful  with  his  books.  With  what  does 
he  excel  ? 

Who  you  spend  your  evenings  with  is  well  known.  Go,  little 
insect :  the  world  is  wide  enough  for  you  and  I.  Mankind's  anti- 
pathy for  snakes  is  derived,  some  say,  from  Adam.  Do  you  know 
who  you  are  speaking  to?  Gibbon  was  engaged  with  his  great 
work  about  twenty  years.  Where  shall  we  turn,  and  in  whom  can 
we  rely?  Though  a  young  man,  he  presided  upon  the  assembly 
with  much  dignity. 

So  you  must  ride 
On  horseback  after  we. 
But  it  were  vain  for  you  and  I 
In  single  fight  our  strength  to  try. 

13.  Examples  under  Rule  XV. 
Correct,  by  the  Caution,  the  following  examples: — 
Who  can  write  better  than  him?    Whom  does  he  honor  more 
than  I  ?    I  know  James  better  than  him.    The  lion  can  devour  a 
sheep  as  well  as  a  wolf.    He  is  no  better  speller  as  I. 


SYNTAX — SPECIAL   CAUTIONS.  271 

14.  Examples  under  Eule  XVI. 

Unless  rain  comes,  we  shall  be  sure  for  to  go.  I  expected  to 
have  seen  you  yesterday.  Govern  your  own  temper,  and  thus  teach 
others  to.  As  we  marched  through  the  streets,  half  the  town,  I 
should  think,  came  out  for  to  see  us.  With  a  few  simple  words  he 
proved  the  previous  speaker  to  have  been  mistaken.  Buy  the  best 
in  the  market,  or,  at  least,  try  to.  While  standing  by  the  door,  I 
saw  the  procession  to  pass  round  the  corner.  The  colonel  bade  me 
to  deliver  this  message.  I  should  have  preferred  to  have  taken  an 
outside  seat. 


209.  Errors  to  be  corrected  by  Special  Cautions, 

1.  Caution  I. — Avoid  Tnigarisms. 

These  are  low  expressions  which  the  uneducated  are  sure  to  adopt. 
Ex. — You  can't  come  that  game.    That  is  tip-top.     Go  it,  boys.     Keep 
your  eye  peeled.    I'll  break  your  top  timbers;  and  others  without  number. 

2.  Caution  II. — Avoid  all  perversions; 

These  come  sometimes  from  a  corruption  of  the  true  word,  sometimes  from 
a  mistake  in  the  sound  of  a  word. 

Ex. — Where  is  the  place  for  the  refuge  matter?  He  was  necessiated 
to  stay  to  hum.  We  all  got  into  a  voilent  prespiration.  The  foilage  of  the 
trees  in  autumn  is  beautiful.  The  causalities  of  that  battle  were  fearful. 
Them  cowcumhers  are  not  fit  to  eat.  I  disremember  what  you  told  me. 
That  depends  upon  your  ipse  dixie. 

3.  Caution  III. — Avoid  proTinciaiisms. 

These  are  expressions  confined  to  certain  localities  in  the  same  country. 

Ex. — My  father  is  a  heap  better.  I  reckon  I  will  never  succeed.  You 
will  have  a  right  smart  chance.  Directly  we  started,  it  commenced  to  rain. 
Well  (loal),  I  guess  that  will  do. 

4.  Caution  IY. — Avoid  misapplications. 

These  consist  in  using  words  either  with  a  wrong  meaning  or  in  a  wrong 
connection. 

Ex. — I  have  brought  the  balance  of  the  books.  This  is  a  likely  youth. 
Fruit  in  a  damp  cellar  is  incident  to  decay.  It  didn't  hurt  me  any. 
Which  of  these  six  pencils  will  you  take  ?  I  will  take  either.  We  had 
seven  pear-trees,  but  neither  of  them  lived.  The  two  boys  were  so  angry, 
they  would  not  speak  to  one  another.     The  farmer  had  fewer  hay  than  he 


272  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

expected.  He  had  less  fruit-trees  than  his  neighbor.  If  you  will  not  go 
to  me,  I  shall  come  to  you.  We  rode  down  the  river  in  a  flat-boat.  The 
teacher  learned  the  boys  arithmetic.  The  woodsman  will  fall  the  trees. 
The  council  was  setting  all  night.  The  sun  is  sitting  in  a  cloud.  Do  you 
love  maple  sugar  ?  I  expect  some  of  the  boys  broke  that  sled.  I  carried 
my  brother  to  school  in  a  horse  and  sleigh.  The  river  has  overflown  its 
banks.  The  medicine  has  affected  a  cure.  Where  was  he  raised  f  The 
ship  laid  in  the  harbor  a  whole  month.  I  feel  as  though  I  could  do 
it.  Let  him  do  like  I  do.  He  gave  a  demonstration  where  he  proved 
two  sides  equal.  He  was  averse /rom  the  undertaking.  I  diflered  icith 
him.     He  is  independent  on  his  father.     I  shall  confide  on  your  advice. 

5.  Caution  V. — Avoid  improper  ellipses. 

For  ellipses,  see  216,  3. 

Ex. — It  is  a  long  road  has  no  turning.  He  alienated  the  affection 
of  his  acquaintance  as  well  as  his  best  friends.  Solon  was  banished  his 
country.  It  is  an  offence  which  does  not  admit  an  apology.  We  pledge 
our  lives,  fortunes,  and  our  sacred  honor.  Your  friends  never  blame 
you  for  making  short  credits  and  calls.  It  is  not  so  easy  to  get  money 
as  spend  it.  I  would  rather  live  with  honest  boors  than  false  gentlemen. 
He  never  has  succeeded,  and  never  will.  She  placed  me  near  the  desk, 
and  James  the  farther  end  of  the  room.  I  do  not  know  whether  he  has 
been  engaged  by  the  defendant  or  plaintiff.  I  was  surprised  at  the 
manner  he  received  it.  His  stories  are  as  hard  to  swallow  as  Baron 
Munchausen. 

6.  Caution  VI. — Avoid  unnecessary  repetitions. 

Repetitions  are  not  ahcays  censurable.  The  caution  is  intended  to  guard 
against  a  needless  repetition  (1)  of  the  same  tcord  or  any  of  its  derivatives ; 
(2)  of  the  same  idea,  or  one  nearly  allied  to  it. 

Ex. — In  the  formation  of  the  different /orm.?  of  the  verb,  we  should  be 
careful  to  use  the  present  participle  informing  the  progressive /orm,  and 
the  passive  participle  in  forming  the  passive  form.  Her  faithfulness  and 
fidelity  deserved  much  praise. 

7.  Caution  YTI.— Avoid  unnecessary  words. 

Ex.— Have  you  sold  your  house  ?  No ;  but  Mr.  Jones  talks  of  buy- 
ing of  it.  He  never  denied  bid  that  he  was  opposed  to  the  law.  This 
line  of  railroad  opens  up  a  fine  prospect  for  this  section  of  the  State. 
The  Board  offer  their  grateful  acknowledgments  for  the  support  hitherto 
so  liberally  extended,  and  which  has  so  greatly  contributed  to  this  satis- 


SYNTAX — SPECIAL   CAUTIONS.  273 

factory  result.    I  meant  to  be  present  at  the  meeting,  but  which  I  waa 
unable. 

Have  you  got  any  good  tea?  (a  common  abuse,  which  should  be 
avoided.)     He  has  got  no  good  land  for  raising  strawberries. 

We  have  no  ague  in  this  here  place.  Stop  that  there  noise.  {This  'ere 
and  that  'ere  are  sometimes  heard.) 

I  felt  the  chills  to  run  all  over  me. 

If  I  would  keep  it  a  secret,  he  said  how  that  he  would  tell  me. 

He  had  ought  to  work. 

They  have  more  friends  among  us  than  you  think /or. 

And  there  are  several  other  such  ways  of  evading  the  law. 

Bartholomew  Gosnold  first  discovered  Martha's  Vineyard  in  1602. 
^^Tcould  not  for  a  moment  admit  of  such  a  plea. 
j  The  committee  carefully  investigated  into  all  the  circumstances. 

I  kinder  like  him  after  all.    It  is  a  pretty  smart  sort  of  a  town. 

They  presented  the  superintendent  with  a  gold  hunting-watch. 

The  old  cat,  having  lost  all  but  one  of  her  kittens,  she  carried  that 
one  away  and  hid  it. 

The  Indians,  before  they  declare  war,  they  hold  a  solemn  council. 

After  his  defeat  he  was  the  most  unhappiest  man  I  ever  saw. 

More  sharper  than  a  serpent's  tooth  is  vile  ingratitude. 

The  diet  cures  more  than  the  doctor. 

One  vote  would  decide  who  should  be  a  captain. 

The  oxygen  gas  is  the  vital  part  of  the  atmosphere. 

I  can't  consent  by  any  manner  of  means. 

A  pair  of  pincers  will  do  equally  as  well.     It  is  equally  a^  good. 

The  days,  the  hours,  and  the  minutes  dragged  slowly  along. 

That  wise  and  that  benevolent  man  has  gone  to  his  rest. 

By  the  listening  to  his  conversation  I  avoided  talking  myself. 

You  have  been  wandering  about  long  enough :  you  ought  to  marry 
and  settle  dovm  somewhere. 

Common  laborers  are  now  being  paid  two  dollars  a  day. 

Complaints  are  now  being  made  of  the  course  of  the  commissioner. 

San  Francisco  is  the  largest  of  any  city  west  of  the  Eocky  Mountains. 

8.  Caution  VIII. — Avoid  an  improper  arrangement. 

Errors  in  syntax  sometimes  arise  from  an  improper  arrangement  of  the 
words  of  a  sentence.  This  often  renders  the  thought  obscure,  ambiguous,  or 
even  equivocal. 

Mr.  Brown  needs  a  physician  who  is  sick.  These  delicious  oranges 
came  in  a  large  wicker  basket  which  we  eat.  Found,  a  gold  watch  by  a 
gentleman  with  steel  hands. 

The  preposition  should  be  placed  as  near  to  its  object  as  possible. 


274  ENGLISH   GRAMMAE. 

To  let,  a  well-built  two-story  house,  containing  eleven  rooms,  a  large, 
dry  cellar,  and  a  new  furnace,  with  a  French  roof.  A  man  brought  home 
my  Newfoundland  dog  in  his  shirt-sleeves. 

I  feel  obliged  to  reluctantly  remind  you  of  your  promise.  He  ought 
to  be  without  doubt  regarded  as  the  real  inventor.  After  the  firing  ceased, 
lie  was  seen  to  slowly  and  cautiously  retreat. 

9.  Caution  IX. — Avoid  nsibccoming  expressions. 

Language  is  unbecoming  when,  in  style,  it  is  not  suited  to  the  thought  to 
be  expressed.  In  common  discourse,  the  ancient,  poetic,  or  sacred  style  should 
be  avoided.  In  apostrojjhe,  in  addresses  to  the  Deity,  in  poetic  and  elevated 
composition,  the  familiar  style  is  in  the  highest  degree  offensive. 

Ex. — Art  thou  feeding  the  cows  ?     Camest  thou  to  school  late  ?     He 

hath  caught  a  trout.     Mr.  Jones  liveth  at  No. Washington  Street. 

Adieu  to  you,  fair  Ehine !     O  you  Parnassus !  whom  I  now  survey. 


210.  Miscellaneous  Examples. 

A  new  hotel  is  being  built. — {is  building.)  Large  supplies  of  these 
goods  are  being  thrown  upon  the  market.  How  old  are  you  ?  I  am  going 
on  for  twelve. — [in  my  twelfth  year.) 

He  used  to  was,  used  to  could  (vulgarisms). 

Turn  your  toes  out  when  you  walk,  like  I  do. — {as.) 

They  were  not  fortunate  in  choosing  a  day,  like  we  were. 

James  is  not  as  tall  as  George. — {so  tall.) 

He  brought  home  gloves  and  laces,  and  all  those  sort  of  things. 

The  ascent  was  not  as  difficult  as  they  feared. 

You  will  find  these  kind  of  apples  excellent  for  winter  use. 

I  had  rather  stay  at  home. — {ivould  rather.) 

We  ainH  going  to  have  any  drones  in  this  hive. 

It  ainH  any  use  for  a  fellow  like  me  to  try. 

There  is  a  good  deal  of  idle  capital  in  the  country. — {great  deal.) 

He  sent  a  great  deal  of  fat  cattle  to  Brighton. — (great  number.) 

Our  minister  is  just  recovering  from  a  fsevere  attackt  of  the  gout. 

They  attacUed  us  in  the  night ;  and  we  Yanks  were  busy  enough  till 
morning,  I  tell  you. 

You  mustn't  go  near  the  water,  for  I'm  afraid  you  will  be  droumded. 

Have  you  milked  the  cows,  John  ?     I  didnH  yet,  sir. — (I  hmenH.) 

It  was  impossible  to  say  who  it  was  fired  by. 

The  pleasure  of  your  evening's  party  depends  very  much  upon  who 
you  have  for  company. 

Haven't  you  no  idea  who  it  was  ? 

I  don't  think  no  worse  of  him  for  that. 


SYNTAX — IMPROPER   USE.  275 

You  could  not  do  it  justice  by  no  description  you  could  give. 
I  reckon  we  shall  have  a  dry  spell  now,  after  so  much  rain. 

The  word  reckon  is  generally  used  in  the  Southern  States,  as  guess  is  in 
New  England,  for  think. 

How  old  is  your  father  ?    I  guess  he  is  about  eighty. 

The  number  of  the  convicts  of  the  State  Prison  is  two  hundred. — (in.) 

I  meant  to  have  told  you  the  meeting  was  postponed. 

He  sent  us  word  he  would  have  liked  to  have  come. 

They  come  with  us  into  the  city  yesterday. — (went.) 

I  shall  certainly  come  to  Philadelphia  this  week,  if  I  can. 

I  RTQ  jealous  that  the  cat  catches  my  chickens. — (suspidov^.) 

How  came  all  these  weeds  among  my  parsnips  ?  I  expect  they  grew. — 
(suppose.) 

The  general  will  arrive  in  Boston  about  four  o'clock  p.  M. — {at.) 

He  has  both  talent  and  capacity  in  business. — (for  business.) 

And  the  beggars  and  vn^etcheder  poor  keep  themselves  warm  by  sundry 
recollections  of  summer. 

Overcome  with  fatigue,  I  laid  down  under  the  first  tree  I  came  to. 

He  is  an  uneasy  child ;  he  cannot  lay  still  or  set  still  a  moment. 

After  a  hen  has  lain  a  certain  number  of  eggs,  she  generally  wants  to 
Bet. 

Lay  is  a  transitive,  lie  an  intransitive  verb.  Set  is  sometimes  intransitive, 
but  usually  transitive;  sit  is  always  intransitive. 

My  brother  has  promised  to  learn  me  to  skate. — (to  teach.) 
How  do  you  do,  Mr.  Brown  ?    Oh,  I'm  tolerable  well. 
I  have  lost  the  knife  father  give  me  last  Christmas. 
The  robin  finally  alit  on  the  branch  just  above  me. 
What  time  did  you  say  it  wasf 
Who  told  you  the  Governor  was  to  be  present  ? 

I  never  knew  before  that  Russian  America  had  such  a  mild  climate. — 
{has.) 
After  a  good  night's  sleep,  he  woke  much  refreshed. 
About  midnight  we  were  suddenly  awoke  by  the  ringing  of  the  bells. 
All  talking  ceased  when  he  begun  to  speak. 
On  trying  to  get  up,  he  found  his  leg  was  broke. 
I  waited  till  noon  ;  but  no  one  come. 

He  only  done  his  duty.     Who  done  it  ?     I  done  as  you  told  me. 
I  drunk  no  tea  or  coffee  for  two  years.     They^f  like  tigers. 
Iforgit  his  name.     It  is  time  to  git  up. 

He  meaned  well.     I  have  rode  so  long,  I  would  like  to  walk  a  while. 
They  have  jumped  over  the  fence  and  ran  away. 
His  vessel  was  spoke  off  the  coast  of  Chili. 


276  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

Byron,  while  in  Venice,  is  said  to  have  srmm  three  miles. 

Ask  all  to  come :  we  will  then  see  who  are  your  friends. 

Deceiving  is  much  the  same  as  to  lie. 

It  is  the  same  book  what  I  told  you  about. 

The  company  which  she  had  taken  so  much  trouble  to  select  were 
evidently  not  well  pleased  with  each  other. 

The  result  of  his  waste  and  extravagance  were  plainly  foreseen. 

The  influence  of  wealth  and  friends,  in  such  cases,  carry  the  day. 

Brown  and  Jones  both  did  well,  but  neither  of  them  ivei^e  equal  to  the 
last  speaker. 

The  wisdom  and  justice  of  his  decision  is  now  apparent. 

Your  letter,  with  the  proof-sheets  of  the  new  arithmetic,  wei'e  received 
last  night. 

Each  day,  each  hour,  bring  their  temptations. 

His  manly  principles,  and  not  his  fear  of  the  world,  restrains  him. 

The  audience  wears  its  hats  in  the  pit. 

And  far  into  the  night  the  soft  dip  of  the  oar,  and  the  gurgling  pro- 
gress of  the  boats,  was  company  and  gentlest  lullaby. 

And  I  think  the  perfume,  as  it  steals  mitigated  to  your  nostrils  out  of 
an  open  church  door,  is  the  reverendest  smell  in  the  world. 

It  was  commended,  I  assure  you,  by  the  very  sdectest  circle  in  our 
village. 

These  violations,  by  good  writers,  of  the  rule  for  comparison  are  not  un- 
common nowadays :  they  will  eventually  be  recognized,  no  doubt,  as  lawful 
usage. 

The  resort  to  begging,  in  such  cases,  is  more  universal  in  the  south  of 
Italy  than  in  the  north. 

And  nature,  from  its  seat  sighing,  through  all  its  works  gave  signs  of 
woe.^ — (her.) 

Ex.-Gov.  Curtin,  of  Pennsylvania,  delivered  an  eulogy. 

I  have  seen  him  do  it  an  hundred  times. 

I  cannot  give  you  the  why's  and  wherefore? s:  but  these  are  the  facts. 

The  Mussulmen  believe  in  fate,  and  yet  wear  talismen  round  their  necks. 

Mix  two  spoonsful  of  cayenne  pepper  with  three  or  four  handsfvl  of 
oat-meal,  and  give  it  just  before  sunset. 

It  is  the  girl  what  lives  near  the  depot. 

I  never  hxive  and  I  think  I  never  shall  see  another  sight  like  that. 

Call  about  noon :  I  shall  be  to  home  at  that  time. 

"Which  is  the  largest  city,  Baltimore  or  New  Orleans  ? 

I  think  James  is  the  handsomest  of  the  two. 


SYNTAX — PECULIAR   USE.  277 

III.  PECtJI^IAR  USE* 

211.  Definitions. 

1.  A  word  has  a  peculiar  use  when  it  varies  from  its 
usual  elassificatioriy  meaning^  or  relation  in  construction. 

2.  A  ivord  or  an  expression  has  an  idiomatic  use  when, 
with  the  sanction  of  good  authority, — 

(1.)  In  the  same  language,  as  in  the  English,  for  example,  it 
departs  from  its  general  analogies. 

Ex. — ''We  were  told  an  exciting  story,"  instead  of  "An  exciting 
story  was  told  us." 

(2.)  In  different  languages,  the  same  thought  is  expressed  with  a 
marked  and  uniform  diflference. 

Ex, — How  do  you  do  f — English.  =  How  goes  it  with  youf — German. 
=  How  carry  you  yourself? — French. 

(3.)  In  any  language,  it  deviates  from  the  principles  of  general 
grammar. 

Ex. — In  addressing  a  single  person,  we  say,  "How  are  youf^  The 
principles  of  general  grammar  require  us  to  say,  "How  art  thouf^ 

Remark. — All  languages  have  their  idioms,  but  the  English  abounds  in 
them.  This  is  chiefly  owing  to  the  character  of  the  language  itself,  as  a 
mixture  of  many  others.  Says  Professor  De  Vere,  "  In  English,  all  the  exist- 
ing  nationalities  of  Europe — the  Sclavonic  alone  excepted — meet  and  mingle 
together."  With  the  words  of  these  nations  came  more  or  less  of  their  pecu- 
liar modes  of  expression ;  and  these,  after  having  been  moulded  and  adapted, 
have  become  a  part  of  our  mother-tongue.  The  grammarian  cannot  change 
these  if  he  would.  The  growth  of  language,  its  new  formations,  and  its  decay, 
are  above  and  beyond  his  control.  *'  Try  to  alter  the  smallest  rule  of  English, 
and  you  will  find  it  is  physically  impossible." — Max  MUller.  And  ho  would 
not  change  them  if  he  could:  he  must  not  attempt  to  adjust  the  words  of  an 
idiom  to  his  grammatical  rules,  and  thus  rob  the  language  of  some  of  its 
choicest  elements  of  life  and  strength.  In  the  following  section  the  peculi- 
arities that  often  perplex  the  learner  are  arranged  under  appropriate  heads, 
and  should  be  consulted  in  cases  of  difficulty. 

212.  Special  Examples. 

1.  The  same  word  may  belong  to  diiFerent  classes. 

(i.)  Idea-words,  or  those  which  form  the  substance  of  the  language. 

24 


278  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

(a.)  From  the  same  root,  without  change. 
Own. — I  own  a  horse  (verb).    The  horse  is  my  ovm  (adj.). 

The  idea  of  peculiar  ownership  is  its  prevailing  meaning.  It  is  used  with 
possessives  to  render  that  idea  emphatic.  J/y  house,  wy  own  house ;  mi/  com- 
position, my  own  composition. 

Sammer. — In  the  summer  (noun);  a  summer  shower  (adj.);  to 
summer  any  one  or  any  thing  (verb). 

Nearly  all  the  common  or  household  words  of  the  language  are  thus  used, 
vrithout  change,  as  nouns,  verba,  and  often  as  adjectives.  Thus,  we  have  "  good 
iron;  he  will  iron  the  thief;  an  iron  bar;  an  eye;  they  eye  him ;  a  cool  spring ; 
I  spring ;  a  spring  morning."  In  many  cases,  when  the  word  does  not  become 
a  distinct  adjective  by  usage,  it  becomes  such  in  effect  by  being  prefixed  to  a 
noun  with  an  intervening  hyphen,  as  a  part  of  a  compound  noun.  Thus,  we 
have  "eye-glass,  eye-witness;  dog-iooih,  plural  (ioy-teeth;  do^'a-tongue  (185, 
W),  dog's-tail  gxa.s&',  6ear-skin,  tear'«-footj"  and  others  almost  without  limit. 

{h.)  From  the  same  root,  with  some  modification. 
Gold. — The  gold  of  California  (noun) ;  a  gold  watch  (adj.);  to  gild 
(verb);  a  golden  opportunity  (deriv.  adj.) ;  ^o/c?-cloth,  gold- 
dust  (adj.  in  effect). 

(c.)  From  differ  en  t  roots. 

Weu. — From  Anglo-Saxon  weaiian,  to  boil. — A  we^/ twenty  feet  deep 
(noun) ;  the  water  began  to  well  up  (verb).  From  Anglo- 
Saxon  wel. — A  well  man  (adj.) ;  he  does  well  (adv.).  Thus, 
we  have  bear  (from  A.-S.  beran),  to  carry,  bear  (from  A.-S. 
bera),  a  quadruped,  and  bear  (from  A.-S.  here),  a  kind  of 
barley.  We  have  bay,  brown;  bay,  a  body  of  water;  bay, 
a  berry;  bay,  a  barking,  to  bark: — really  four  different 
words. 

Besides  these,  there  are  many  words  which  are  the  same  in  orthography 
but  different  in  pronunciation,  or  are  the  same  in  pronunciation  but  different  in 
orthography;  as,  bow  (bow),  bow  (bo),  beau  (bo);  an'grust,  ang^nst'; 
lye,  lie ;  dye,  die.  These  may  belong  to  the  same  or  to  different  classes, 
according  to  their  use. 

Remark. — A  very  profitable  exercise  may  be  introduced  here  by  requiring 
the  pupil  to  take  any  word,  as  form,  feed,  silver,  fair,  close,  and  determine 
into  what  classes  it  falls  from  its  various  uses,  either  in  its  unchanged  form  or 
by  any  form  of  derivation.  Let  him  be  required  to  write  or  give  orally  a 
sentence  containing  each  of  its  uses. 

(2.)  Complex  words,  or  those  which  express  idecLs,  and  at  the 
same  time  connect  or  limit. 


SYNTAX — PECULIAR  USE.  279 

Remark. — It  should  be  observed  that  their  general  use  is  to  express  ideaa 
and  connections.   In  some  cases  they  are  mere  limiting  words  or  mere  connectives. 

[A.)  Snbordinate  connectives,  having  also  a  substantive  use. 

Wbo,  Wbicli.  (1.)  Pronouns  and  subordinate  connectives  at  the  same 
time. 

Who,  Which,  (2.)  also,  When,  Where,  Why,  How,  and  all  other  inter- 
rogative words.  Interrogative  pronouns,  or  inter- 
rogative adverbs,  when  used  to  ask  a  question. 

Who,  Which.  (3.)  Indefinite  interrogative  pronouns  and  subordinate 
connectives,  and  the  others  conjunctive  adverbs,  when 
the  interrogative  sentence  is  incorporated  into 
another  sentence.     (See  78,  4,  5.) 

What.    Besides  the  uses  mentioned  on  page  78,  it  is, — 

(1.)  An  indefinite  interrogative  pronoun:  "He  asked  what 

happened." 
(2.)  An  adverb:  "The  enemy,  having  his  country  wasted, 
what  (partly)  by  himself  and  what  (partly)  by  the  soldiers, 
findeth  succor  in  no  place." 
For  whoever,  whosoever,  whatever,  whatsoever,  see  177,  14,  15. 
For  the  uses  of  that,  see  page  78. 

*(j5.)  Subordinate  connectives,  having  also  an  adverbial  use. 
As.    (1.)  A  part  of  a  compound  preposition.    "^5  to  that  matter, 
he  was  silent."     '^ As  for  me  and  my  house." 
(2.)   A  subordinate  connective. 

(a.)  Conjunctive  adverb  of  manner:    "Speak  as  you 

think." 
of  comparison:  "  He  is  as  tall 

as  his  brother." 
of  time:  "  I  arrived  as  (when) 

he  was  taking  his  leave." 
of  cause  or  reason  :  ^^As  (since) 

you  take  the  responsibility, 

I  will  proceed." 
of    correspondence:   "As    the 

door  turneth  on  its  hinges, 

so  doth  the  slothful  man  on 

his  bed." 
of  an  adversative  meaning:: 

"  Fatigued  as  I  was,  I  walked 

four  hours." 


280  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

[b.)  A  relative  pronoun  (not  strictly,  but  by  an  ellipsis) : 

"  Such  as  I  have  give  I  unto  thee." 
(c.)  An  index  of  apposition-'  "The  moon  as  satellite 

attends."     "  They  regard  him  as  innocent." 

In  this  last  use  the  connective  serves  to  join  only  a  term  (not  a  proposition) 
to  a  superior  term,  and  so  far  resembles  the  preposition.  It  must  not,  how- 
ever, on  this  account  be  so  called.  The  preposition  is  used  to  show  a  relation 
between  terms  representing  different  things ;  whereas  the  term  after  as  denotes 
the  copacityf  rank,  or  character  in  which  the  same  thing  is  to  be  regarded. 
This  use  of  as  is  often  troublesome  to  the  learner,  especially  when  the  refer 
ence  to  the  antecedent  term  is  in  sense  rather  than  in  construction  (sec  183,  13) 
Sometimes  it  is  used  to  limit  the  antecedent  term  to  some  particular  view  or 
attribute  of  itself.  "Vice  considered  as  vice."  "We  shall  consider  man  as 
man."  "  Whatsoever  ye  do,  do  it  heartily,  as  unto  the  Lord."  The  subsequent 
term  is  often  an  adjective  or  a  participle,  and  therefore  cannot  follow  a  pre- 
position.    "  They  regarded  him  as  having  attained  the  highest  rank  " 

(3.)  An  adverb:  "As  yet  (until  now)  I  have  made  no  new  dis- 
covery." It  is  an  adverb  when  used  as  the  first  part  of  a 
correlative:  as  —  as. 

Remark. — When  as  is  used  to  introduce  illustrative  examples,  it  is  a  con- 
junctive adverb:  "A  noun  is  the  name  of  an  object;  as  [is]  John,  Boston, 
[or]  house."  Sometimes  we  must  supply  it:  "  The  rule  is  as  follows," — it  fol- 
lows, or  as  that  which  follows. 

Alter,  and  many  other  words,  such  as  before,  since,  till,  until,  ere, 
except,  save,  for,  notwithstanding,  &e.  (see  143,  18),  are  con- 
junctive adverbs  when  they  connect  subordinate  clauses ;  when 
they  are  followed  by  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  as  object,  they  are 
prepositions.  Several  of  them  are  used  as  mere  adverbs.  Thus, 
we  have,  "  He  came  after  me.  After  I  left  he  wrote  his  friend. 
We  left  soon  after.  He  has  been  at  home  since  noon.  I  have 
not  seen  him  since.  Since  I  returned,  I  have  been  ill."  Most 
of  the  prepositions  are  in  some  uses  adverbs :  thus,  "  over  head ; 
the  rain  is  over',  he  went  under ;  it  is  under  the  house." 

(3.)  Defining  or  connecting  words,  or  words  used  chiefly  to 
limit,  unite,  or  show  transitions. 

1  and  The  are  articles,  or  a  division  of  limiting  adjectives,  when 
they  belong  to  nouns.  A  is  a  preposition  when  placed 
before  a  participle;  as,  a  hunting;  and  in  composition; 
as,  aground,  aloft.  The  is  an  adverb  when  prefixed  to  an 
adverb  or  an  adjective;  as,  ^'The  more  I  see  him,  the 
better  I  like  him." 


SYNTAX — PECULIAR   USE.  281 

All,  Any.  (1.)  (Noun.)    Deprived  of  his  all.    Any  not  used  aa  a 
noun. 
(2.)  (Adj.)    All  men  are  mortal.    Any  house  better  than 

none. 
(3. )  (Adv.)  And  cheeks  a^^  pale.  -4^^  the  better,  -i/iybetter. 
Also,  Besides,  I^ikewise,  Even,  Else,  are  used  sometimes  as  coordi- 
nate conjunctions.     Sometimes  they  are  found  in  con- 
nection with  such  conjunctions,  and  modify  the  general 
eifect  of  the  whole  added  clause.    They  have  the  force 
of  adverbs. 
Agraln.  (1.)  (Adv.)     I  saw  him  again. 

(2.)  (Conj.)    Again,  this  assumption  is  not  sustained  by  the 
facts  in  the  case. 
Alone,  Only.  (1.)   (Adj.)      I  found  him  alone.      The  only  lesson 
taught. 
(2.)   (Adv.)     To  sit  alone.     I  wrote  only  to  amuse 
myself. 
Ay,  Tea,  iTay.  (1.)  (Adverb.)  He  answered  nay  or  yea,  =  no  or  yes. 
(2.)  (Noun.)     The  nays  will  rise,  and  the  ays  will 

remain  seated. 

(3.)  (Coor.  conj.)     He  did  all  that,  yea,  more.    And 

now  do  they  thrust  us  out  privily?  nay,  verily;  but 

let  them  come  themselves  and  fetch  us  out. 

Bnt,Save.  (1.)  (Coor.  conj.)     He  is  not  sick,  hut  faint.     And  that 

no  man  might  buy  or  sell,  save  he  that  had  the  mark. 

(2.)  (Prep.)  They  gave  him  all  but  one.  Whence  all  but 

him  had  fled. 
(3.)  (Adv.)    We  saw  him  but  twice. 
Save   and   hut  aro   obviously   followed   by  the   objective   in   many  con- 
Btnictions,  as  the  pronoun  shows.     Thus,  Wordsworth  says, — 
"  God  save  you  all,  save  this  cursed  friar. 
And  all  desisted, — all  save  him  alone." 
Yet  many  cases  may  be  cited  in  which  the  pronoun   is  in  the  nominative. 
Thus,  Shakspeare  says,  "All  the  conspirators,  save  only  he,  did  that  they  did, 
in  envy  of  great  Cassar."     "  There  was  no  stranger  with  us  in  the  house, 
»ave  we  tico  [were]." — Bible.     The  question  is,  In  what  case  is  the  noun  after 
these  words  ?    Its  form  does  not  decide.    Most  recent  grammarians,  and  both 
Webster  and  Worcester,  call  save  and  but  prepositions,  and  regard  the  noun 
as  in  the  objective.   Such  is  the  present  tendency ;  and  it  may  well  be  regarded 
as  the  settled  usage. 
Botb.  (1.)  (Adj.)    -ffo^A  methods  are  good. 

(2.)  (Correl.  conj.)     He  is  both  virtuous  and  wise. 
24* 


282  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

For,  To.  (1.)  (For,  subor.-conj.)     See  After. 

(2.)  (Prep.)    I  will  call  for  you.    He  will  send  to  me. 

Either  may  be  supplied  before  the  indirect  object:  "He  bought  [for]  me  a 
knife."  They  lack  the  antecedent  term  when  used  before  a  phrase  as  subject. 
"For  him  to  deceive  me  is  inexcusable."  ''To  write  the  same  things  is  not 
profitable." 

Macii.  (1.)  (Noun.)    Where  much  is  given,  much  is  required. 
(2.)  (Adj.)     ilft^cA  ado  is  made. 
(3.)  (Adv.)     I  was  much  pleased  with  the  visit. 
No.  (1.)  (Limiting  adjective.)     He  had  no  funds. 
(2.)  [a.)  (Adverb, — a  modifier.)    No  longer. 

[b.)  (Adverb,  independent.)     "No,  I  never  will  do  it."     To 
this  add,  as  independent  adverbs,  yes,  will,  why.    "Are  you 
going?     Fes,"  =  I  am  going.     "  Well,  what  shall  we  do? 
Why,  I  do  not  know."     *- 
Now.  (1.)  (Noun.)    Now  is  your  time. 
(2.)  (Adverb.)     Come  now. 
(3.)  (Coordinate  causal  conjunction.)    Now  the  serpent  was 

more  subtle  than  any  beast  of  the  field. 
(4. )  (Correlative  connective. )   Now  high,  now  low,  now  master 
up,  now  miss. — Pope. 
Ratber  (adv.),  also  lief,  better,  best,  are  used  with  had  to  express 
equal  willingness  or  preference.    Probably  they  were 
originally   mistaken    interpretations   of  the   abbrevia- 
tion Fd, — i.e.  I  would;  not  /  had.    They  are  idiomatic 
expressions,  and  are  in  good  use.     "  I  had  rather  speak 
five  words  with  my  understanding."     "  I  had  as  lief  go 
as  not."     "  You  had  better  stay." 
So.  (1.)  (Adverb  of  manner  or  degree,  =  thus.)     Do  it  so.    The  air 
is  so  clear. 
(2.)  (Subordinate  connective.)     So  he  can  gain  his  point,  he  is 

unscrupulous  as  to  the  means. 
(3.)  (A  substitute,  used  to  avoid  the  repetition  of  an  expression.) 
I  am  in  earnest,  but  he  is  more  so,  =  in  earnest. 
There.  (Adv.)     It  is  opposed  to  Aere.     " Darkness  ^Aere  might  well 
seem  twilight  here.'' — Milton. 
(Adv.  expletive.)     It  has  no  special  value  in  this  use. 
"There  is  a  pleasure  in  the  pathless  woods." — Byron. 
Then.  (1.)  (Adv.)    Of  time  merely.  "Till  then  who  knew  the  force 
of  those  dire  arms?" 


SYNTAX PECULIAR   USE.  283 

Of  succession.     "  First  cast  out  the  beam  out  of  thine  own 

eye,  and  then  shalt  thou  see  clearly,"  &c. 
(2.)  (Conj.)     If  this  be  so,  then  man  has  a  natural  freedom. 

Then  is  used  sometimes  with  so  or  now  to  indicate  an  advance  in  an  argu- 
ment, the  speaker  assuming  that  a  previous  point  is  established.  "So,  then, 
faith  Cometh  by  hearing."     "Noic,  then,  be  all  thy  weighty  cares  away." 

Thereby  (1.)  (Adv.),  also  therewith,  whereby,  wherewith,  therein, 
wherein,  hereby,  herein,  &c.  "You  will  gain  f hereby. ^^ 
"Hereby  shall  I  know  that  you  are  true  men."  "Herein 
thou  hast  done  foolishly." 
(2.)  (Conj.  adv.)  "Acquaint  thyself  with  him,  and  be  at 
peace;  thereby  good  shall  come  unto  thee." — Bible. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  these  relative  words,  so  expressive,  and  so  com- 
mon in  the  language  a  century  ago,  are  passing  out  of  use,  and  with  them 
such  words  as  thither,  hither,  thenceforth,  &c.  It  is  difficult  to  supply  the 
place  of  whither  or  thither,  for  example.  These  denote  direction,  whereas 
where  and  there  denote,  rather,  i:>lace. 

-wortb.  (1.)  (Noun.)     "It  has  a  real  wor^A." 

(2.)  (Adj.)     "A  ring  he  hath  of  mine  worth  forty  ducats," 
=:  of  the  value  of.     The  idea  of  a  preposition  is  involved 
in  the  word,  as  in  like  or  near. 
(3.)  (Verb.)    "  Woe  worth  the  man,"  =  Woe  be  to  the  man, 
imper.  mode,  or  infin.  after  /e^ understood. — "Let  woe  be 
to  the  man." 
Yet.  (Adv.)     Yet  more.    The  deed  was  made  yet  darker  by  the 
profession  of  friendship. 
(Coor.  conj.)     Yet  I  say  unto  you,  That  even  Solomon  in  all 
his  glory  was  not  arrayed  like  one  of  these. — Bible. 

2.  Certain  phrases  or  combinations  become  idiomatic, 
and  practically  inseparable,  when  their  meaning  and  force 
are  lost  by  analysis. 

Remark. — To  study  these,  as  authorized  forms  of  expression,  is  far  more 
useful  to  the  student  than  to  follow  them  with  the  tenacity  of  the  gram- 
marian till  every  word  is  adjusted  to  its  proper  class  and  rule  of  construction. 

A  noun  with  a  noun. — We  have  the  following  combinations : — 
(1.)  €o4ir(linate; — as,  brother  and  sister/  man  and  wife;  Joy  and 
sorrow;  vice  and  misery;  horse  and  chaise;  bread  and  milk. 

[a.)  These  may  be  connected  with  a  term — as  a  predicate,  for 
example— which  is  compatible  with  each  separately:  as,  "  The  bro- 


284  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

ther  and  the  sister  are  at  home,"  =  The  brother  is  at  home  and 
the  sister  is  at  home. 

(b.)  They  may  be  united  to  a  term  which  can  only  belong  to  the 
combination  as  such,  and  yet  be  looked  upon  separately;  as,  "Vice 
and  misery  are  inseparable." 

(c.)  By  a  common  and  idiomatic  use,  they  may  come  to  be 
regarded  as  one  thing,  and  unite  with  a  term  accordingly;  as,  "  The 
horse  and  chaise  is  at  the  door."  "  Bread  and  milk  is  the  best  food 
for  children." 

(2.)  Subordinate; — as,  David's  harp;  the  Apostle  John;  an 
or/s^er-saloon. 

(a.)  The  possessive  noun  unites  subordinately  with  the  principal, 
primarily  to  show  that  the  object  named  by  the  latter  is  owned  by 
the  person  named  by  the  former;  as,  John's  coat. 

Most  of  the  peculiar  uses  of  the  possessives  are  mentioned  under  Rule  VII. 
(185).     Observe  that  the  two  nouns  denote  different  objects. 

[b.)  The  noun  in  Apposition; — Arnold  the  ii^aitor ;  King  Henry; 
George  Washington;   Ye  tw^w  of  Athens. 

For  the  idiomatic  uses  of  this  combination,  see  Rule  VI.  (183,  2,  3,  «kc.) 
Here  the  nouns  denote  the  same  object. 

(c.)  As  an  adjective; — as,  A  variety  store ;  a  stone  waXl;  a  brick 
house. 

The  principles  of  general  grammar  require  that  when  a  noun  becomes  an 
adjective  it  shall  undergo  some  change  of  termination  j  as,  "A  gold-en  harvest ; 
a  leather-n  girdle."  But  in  English  almost  any  noun,  without  change,  may 
be  used  as  an  adjective.  This  use  is  idiomatic,  and  leads  to  a  variety  of  con- 
Bcquences. 

First. — The  adjective-noun  must  be  placed  before  the  other;  as,  "An  iron 
gate." 

Secondly. — Unlike  the  case  of  apposition,  it  means  a  different  thing  from 
the  limited  noun ;  as,  "A  berry  pie." 

Thirdly. — It  becomes  only  partially  an  adjective,  still  retaining  some 
of  the  characteristics  of  the  noun.  It  is  limited  like  the  noun;  as,  "A  high- 
pressure  engine" — not  "a  high  engine,"  nor  "a  highly  pressure  engine." 

Fourthly. — To  avoid  ambiguity,  the  hyphen  is  often  used  to  unite  the  two 
into  a  compound  word.  This  is  often  the  case  when  no  such  result  would 
follow ;  as,  "A  white-oak  pail,  a  white  oak-pail."  See  in  the  Dictionary  the 
compounds  of  dog,  bear,  fire,  or  almost  any  common  word. 

Fifthly. — The  noun  thus  used  must  be  in  the  singidar  number,  even  when 
limited  by  an  adjective  signifying  plurality:  as,  "K  foot  pole;"  "a  ten-foot 
pole;"  ^^  forty  horse  power," — not  horses'  power.  This  must  be  so  even  when 
the  noun  otherwise  is  used  only  in  the  plural ;  as,  "A  ftoice^-complaint,  a  spec' 
tac/e-maker," — not  "  a  ftowefo-complaint,  a  «pec<acA2«-maker.'* 


SYNTAX — PECULIAR   USE.  285 

A  noun  witli  a  verb, — 

{a.)  As  subject. — The  steak  eats  well.     That  sentence  reads  well. 

Here  the  verb  is  used  passively,  to  denote  the  capacity  of  the  subject  to 
receive  the  act.  In  a  similar  way  we  have  the  progressive  form;  as,  ''Flour 
is  selling  high,*"  "The  house  is  building;"'  "Efforts  are  making,"  &c. 

[b.)  As  object. — They  laid  siege  to  the  city.  ThQj  found  fauU 
with  him.    They  lost  sight  of  the  object. 

In  such  cases  the  objective  noun  has  become  so  closely  allied  to  the  verb 
as  to  form  apparently  a  part  of  it.  In  using  the  passive  the  grammarian's 
rule  gives  a  feeble  construction.  Compare  ''Sight  was  lost  of  the  object"  with 
" The  object  was  lost  sight  of."  "He  was  found  fault  with."  Here  sight  and 
fault  remain  by  idiomatic  use  in  the  objective.  The  language  abounds  with 
similar  constructions.  It  is  deserving  of  notice  that  these  rich  and  vigorous 
expressions  are  formed  from  the  most  familiar  Anglo-Saxon  elements. 

(c.)  A  double  object, — a  noun  and  an  adjective;  as,  to  lay  the 
head  low,  to  drink  the  cup  dry,  to  plough  the  furrow  deep,  to  bake 
the  bread  brown. 

Here  the  adjective  expresses  an  attribute  which  is  imparted  to  the  object 
by  means  of  the  action  of  the  verb :  hence  it  helps  to  complete  the  meaning 
of  the  verb,  inasmuch  as  it  gives  a  new  attribute  to  the  noun, — attribu- 
tive object.     See  187,  1  (a). 

An  adjective  witb  a  verb;  as,  to  wal^  lame,  to  come  late,  to  get 
rid  of  {rid,  pas.  part.,  to  get  one's  self  rid  of). 

Here  the  adjectives  or  participles  belong  to  the  subject,  but  modify  the 
action. 

A  preposition  with  a  verb ;  as,  to  act  up  to ;  to  buy  in,  off,  out; 
to  come  to  (accent  on  to,  to  recover  from  a  swoon),  to  bring  to,  to 
come  by,  to  go  by,  to  go  over  with,  to  do  on  ==  don,  to  do  off=  doff,  to 
do  up,  to  do  for,  to  lay  up,  &c 

Examples  of  this  kind,  in  which  one  or  two  prepositions  are  so  closely 
united  to  the  verb  as  to  form  a  part  of  it,  are  almost  innumerable.  They  go 
with  the  verb  into  the  passive  voice,  and  whenever  taken  from  the  verb  the 
expression  not  only  becomes  weakened,  but  is  often  entirely  changed  in 
meaning.  These  must  be  called  adverbs,  if  taken  alone.  If  joined  to  the 
verb  as  an  inseparable  part  of  it,  they  are  not  to  be  parsed  by  themselves. 

A  preposition  with  a  preposition  (coordinately) ;  as,  over  and 
over,  by  and  by,  through  and  through,  &c. 

These  should  be  taken  together  as  inseparable  adverbial  phrases. 

A  preposition  with  an  adjective  (some  noun  being  understood) ; 
as,  in  vain,  at  first,  at  large,  at  most,  at  least,  on  high. 


286  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

These  are  to  be  taken  as  inseparable  adverbial  phrases. 

A  nonn,  preposition,  and  noun ;  as,  hand  to  hand,  hand  to  mouthy 
end  for  end,  cheek  by  jowl,  face  to  face,  year  by  year,  day  by  day,  &c. 

All  such  expressions  are  adverbial,  and  lose  their  force  by  analysis. 
If  they  are  to  be  separated,  the  first  may  be  regarded  as  nominative  abso- 
lute with  a  participle  understood,  or,  perhaps  better,  governed  by  a  prepo- 
sition understood.  "  They  fought  hand  [being]  to  hand,"  or  "  [with]  hand 
to  hand."    The  second  is  governed  by  the  preposition  expressed. 

Two  or  more  prepositions,  witboat  a  conjunction, — 

(1.)  The  first  used  as  an  adverb:  as,  "  He  came  out  into  the  open 
field.  He  went  up  to  within  ten  feet  of  the  enemy's  works"  (up,  ad- 
verb, U),prep.  governing  the  expression  ^i7Am  ten  feet,  =  space,  within, 
^rcp.  governing /ee^). 

(2.)  Both  used  as  adverbs.  "  The  rule  must  be  lived  w/)  ^o."  "The 
whole  subject  was  gone  over  ivith." 

Two  or  more  conjunctions;  as,  ''Now  when  these  things  were 
thus  ordainedj  the  priests  went  always  into  the  first  tabernacle." 
''Nor  yet  that  he  should  offer  himself  often.?' 

Remark. — Each  connective  has  its  use,  and  should  always  be  explained. 

3.  The  same  word  in  the  same  connection  may  per- 
form several  functions  at  once. 

It  may  stand  as  different  parts  of  speech  at  the  same  time. 

{a.)  The  adjective  used  as  a  noun  maybe  a  noun  in  its  regimen, 
but  an  adjective  in  its  limitations ;  as,  "  We  honor  the  brave." 
"The  most  degenerate  were  abandoned."  When  an  adjective  be- 
comes wholly  a  noun,  it  is  limited  as  a  noun. 

{b.)  The  participle  or  the  infinitive  may  have  the  construction  of 
the  noun,  but  the  tense  and  limitations  of  the  verb,  at  the  same 
time;  as,  "His  not  having  written  the  letter  was  the  occasion  of 
much  inconvenience."    "  To  see  the  sun  is  pleasant." 

(c.)  All  relative  pronouns  have  both  a  substantive  and  a  con- 
nective value  at  the  same  time.  What,  in  the  example,  "  He  re- 
ceived what  instructions  were  required,"  is  at  once  adjective,  sub- 
stantive, and  connective;  i.e.  it  has  case,  it  limits,  and  it  connects. 
(See  77,  5.) 

213.  Exercise— Idiomatic  and  Peculiar  Constructions, 

1.  Analyze  and  parse  the  following  examples: — 

The  learned  pagans  ridiculed  the  Jews  for  being  a  credulous 


SYNTAX — IDIOMATIC  CONSTRUCTIONS.  287 

people.  That  the  barons  and  freeholders  derived  their  authority 
from  kings  is  wholly  a  mistake.  It  is  certainly  as  easy  to  be  a 
scholar  as  a  gamester  I  am  not  sure  of  there  ever  having  been 
such  a  man  as  Casper  Hauser  The  boy  has  more  excuses  than  can 
be  considered  in  the  allotted  hour.  Six  times  six  are  thirty  six. 
He  received  sixty-two  and  a  half  cents  for  every  three  pounds  he 
furnished.  The  thought  of  being  good  ought  to  arouse  us  to  action. 
The  higher  one  is,  the  farther  he  can  see.  Cursed  is  he  that  setteth 
light  by  his  father  or  his  mother.  The  distance  fell  a  little  short 
of  twenty  miles.  The  wind  blows  cold.  For  Jacob  my  servant's 
sake,  and  Israel  mine  elect,  I  have  even  called  thee  by  thy  name. 
To  be  good  is  to  be  happy.  I  rejoice  in  your  success  as  an  in- 
structor He  introduced  me  to  the  president, — an  honor  which  I 
shall  not  soon  forget.  They  struck  one  another.  The  rain  and  the 
sunshine  have  each  its  appropriate  work  to  do.  It  is  man's  to  err. 
I  am  my  beloved's,  and  my  beloved  is  mine.  There  shall  nothing 
die  of  all  that  is  the  children's  of  Israel.  Were  you  at  Beecher's 
last  evening's  lecture  ?  In  Henry  the  Eighth's  reign  England  and 
Wales  were  completely  united.  This  book  was  purchased  at  Little 
and  Brown's.  Whom  have  they  elected  chairman  ?  What  do  you 
call  it?  By  the  world,  I  Avould  not  care  a  pin  if  the  other  thtee 
were  in.  For  one  to  steal  is  base.  To  confess  the  truth,  I  was  in 
fault.  Then  shalt  thou  bring  forth  that  man  .or  that  woman  unto 
thy  gates,  and  shalt  stone  them  with  stones  till  they  shall  die.  He 
was  so  much  affected  as  to  weep.  "' 

2.  Parse  and  explain  the  words  in  italics : — 
To  affect^to  be  a  lord  in  one's  closet  would  be  romantic/madness. 
I  am  not  aware  of  his  ever  having  been  a  teacher.  Was  this  owing 
to  there  being  twelve  primary  deities  among  the  Gothic  nations? 
Wheat  is  worth  a  dollar  a  bushel.  The  whole  affair  is  of  no  account 
whatever,  \A11  things  whatsoever  ye  would  that  men  should  do  to 
you,  do  ye  even  so  to  themj 

Whoever  thinks  a  faultless  piece  to  see, 
Thinks  what  ne'er  was,  nor  is,  nor  e'er  shall  be. 

Whoever  may  oppose,  we  shall  press  the  measure  vigorously. 
Excuse  me  this  once. 

And  all  the  air  a  solemn  stillness  holds, 
Save  where  the  beetle  wheels  his  droning  flight. 
A  messenger  came  rushing  from  the  crowd.    The  fire  turned  the 
cup  black.    The  knife  was  ground  sharp.     The  more  I  read  it,  the 


288  ENGLISH   GRAMMAE. 

better  I  like  it.  "  Who  are  you  f"  was  his  greeting  to  this  strange 
intruder.  "/  will  not  hurt  you"  was  the  answer.  Let  there  be 
light.  Every  thing  depends  iipon  who  compose  the  committee. 
We  found  four  persons :  namely,  two  men  and  two  women.  He  is 
both  witty  and  wise.  Parrots  will  talk  like  persons.  The  boy  is 
like  his  father.  He  gave  some  apostles,  and  some  prophets,  and 
some  evangelists,  and  some  pastors  and  teachers.  He  bids  whoever 
thirst  to  come.  Though  he  was  rejected,  he  had  the  boldness  even 
to  renew  his  application.  They  talked  the  night  away.  They  ran 
the  train  at  the  rate  of  fifty  miles  per  hour.  This  is — what  do  you 
call  it?    I  know  not  whom  to  send. 

They  rose  hut  as  your  fathers  rose.  Let  your  communication  be 
yea,  yea,  and  nay,  nay.  If  they  kill  us,  we  shall  but  die.  Give 
thanks  unto  the  Lord, /or  he  is  good;  for  his  mercy  endureth  for- 
ever. The  cloth  is  five  dollars  a  yard.  They  go  a  begging  to  a 
bankrupt's  door.  They  are  beautiful  in  themselves,  and  much  more 
so  in  the  noble  language  peculiar  to  the  great  poet.  Though  all 
the  winds  of  doctrine  were  let  loose  to  play  upon  the  earth,  so  truth 
be  in  the  field,  we  do  injuriously  to  misdoubt  her  strength.  Dis- 
course oft  wants  an  animated  no.  Go,  and  sin  no  more.  Not  this 
man,  but  Barabbas.  Now  Barabbas  was  a  robber.  I  live  as  I  did; 
I  think  as  I  did;  I  love  you  as  I  did.  There  I  brought  her,  as  pity- 
ing her  hard  usage.  As  poverty  is  not  a  crime,  let  us  not  try  to 
hide  it.  He  enlisted  as  a  substitute.  We  cannot  regard  results  as 
separated  from  causes.  Such  a^  were  sick  received  fiirloughs.  I 
have  no  more  such  as  this.  Sunday  as  it  was,  we  were  compelled 
to  labor.  The  terms  of  the  agreement  are  as  follows.  Rich  as  he 
was,  he  had  no  power.  As  far  as  the  east  is  from  the  west,  so  far 
hath  he  removed  our  transgressions  from  us.  As  for  your  threats, 
I  pay  no  heed  to  them.  As  yet,  nothing  has  been  heard.  The 
government  sent  out  a  stone  fleet,  as  it  was  called.  As  an  artist, 
his  success  was  all  that  could  be  wished.  All  at  once,  the  noise  of 
the  interior  ceases,  and  the  whole  of  the  bees  about  the  doors  re- 
enter. 

Her  voice  was  all  the  blind  man  knew ; 

But  that  was  all  in  all  to  him. 

Will  you  go,  or  stay  ?  It  is  all  one  to  me.  "  For  all  that,"  re- 
lumed the  pendulum,  "  it  is  very  dark  here."  There  is  no  reason 
at  all  for  refusing  him.  He  counted  us  to  see  if  we  were  all  pre- 
sent.   He  then  dismissed  us  all. 

I  tell  thee  what,  corporal,  I  could  tear  her. — Shak.     What  time 


SYNTAX — FIGURES.  28  J) 

I  am  afraid,  I  will  trust  in  thee.  We  found  broken  glass,  old 
chairs,  tattered  clothing,  and  what  not.  What !  could  ye  not  watch 
with  me  one  hour?  I  should  be  sorry  if  it  entered  into  the  imagina- 
tion of  any  person  whatsoever  that  I  was  preferred  to  all  other  patrons. 
The  more  he  exercises,  the  stronger  he  is.  There  is  nothing  at  all 
besides  this  manner.  I  will  bring  him  word  again.  But  even  then 
the  morning  cock  crew  loud.  He  was  not  even  aware  of  it.  It  is 
he,  even  he.  It  must  be  repeated  again  and  again.  What  else  shall 
I  give?  Let  the  boy  alone.  Man  shall  not  live  by  bread  alone. 
His  only  child  was  left  alone.  I  will  give  it  to  him  and  him  only. 
Both  the  sons  were  present :  I  saw  them  both.  How  can  a  thing  be 
both  bitter  and  sweet  at  the  same  time?  Wherever  there  is  sense  or 
perception,  there  some  idea  is  actually  produced.  Now  and  then  we 
saw  a  distant  sail.    Now  is  your  time. 

Till  then,  who  knew 
The  force  of  those  dire  arms? 
They  wandered  here  and  there. — Milton. 

Take  that  and  make  much  of  it.  How  much  can  he  give  f  I  had 
rather  be  a  dog  and  bay  the  moon,  than  such  a  Roman.  Is  the 
peach  mellow?  Rather  so.  Yes,  the  ays  prevailed.  What  is  your 
watch  worth  ?  It  is  worth  a  hundred  dollars.  Woe  worth  the  day ! 
As  yet  no  results  are  apparent.  He  was  admonished  again  and 
again,  yet  he  would  persist.  Or  did  a  sable  cloud  turn  forth  its 
silver  lining  on  the  night  ?  He  wears  a  wide-awake  hat.  Where  is 
the  scissor  {sf)  grinder?  How  smooth  Cowper's  lines  read/  The 
beacon  was  lost  sight  of.  The  boy  was  laughed  at.  That  nuisance 
must  be  got  rid  of.  Can  you  pump  the  cistern  dry  f  How  lame  he 
walks !  He  struck  the  stone  such  a  blow  that  it  was  crushed  into  a 
thousand  pieces.  I  will  sell  out  my  interest  if  you  will  act  lap  to 
your  agreement.  The  fainting  child  did  not  come  to  for  nearly  an 
hour.  What  rule  shall  we  go  by  ?  He  paced  the  ground  over  and 
over.  At  first,  I  thought  my  labor  was  all  in  vain.  We  met  the 
enemy /ace  to  face.    Let  the  beam  be  turned  end  for  end. 


FIGURES. 
214.  Definition. 

1.  A  figure  is  any  deviation  from  the  grammatical  or 
ordinary  form,  construction,  and  application  of  a   word. 

25 


290  ENGLISH   GEAMMAE. 

Figures  are  divided  into  three  classes, — figures  of  'Ety* 
mology,  of  Syntax,  and  of  Rhetoric. 


215.  Figures  of  Etymology. 

1.  A  figure  of  Etymology  is  a  deviation   from   the 
ordinary  form  of  a  word. 

2.  Figures  of  Etymology  consist  either  in  a  defect,  an 
excess,  or  a  change  in  some  of  the  elements  of  a  word. 

3.  Aphseresis  cuts  oif  a  letter  or  syllable  from  the  be- 
ginning of  a  word ;  as,  Against,  ^gan,  for  against,  began. 

Ex. — Around  'gan  Marmion  wildly  stare. 

4.  Siyncope  removes  a  letter'or  syllable  from  the  middle 
of  a  word ;  as  o^er,  e^er,  lov^d,  for  over,  ever,  loved, 

Ex. — Kind  nature's  bounties  o'er  the  globe  diffused. 

5.  Apocope  cuts  off  a  letter  or  syllable  from  the  end  of 
a  word ;  as,  tN,  tho\  for  the,  though. 

Ex. — The  merrier  fool  o'  ih^  two,  yet  quite  as  mad. 

6.  Prosthesis  adds  a  letter  or  syllable  to  the  begin- 
ning of  a  word ;  as,  adown,  enchain,  for  down,  chain. 

Ex. — And  tears  adown  that  dusky  cheek  have  rolled. 

7.  Paragoge  adds  a  letter  or  syllable  to  the  end  of  a 
word ;  as,  withouten,  bounden,  for  without,  bound. 

Ex. — And  taught  withouten  pain  and  strife  to  yield  the  breath. 

8.  Synseresis   contracts   two   syllables    into   one;    as, 
thou'rt.  His,  for  thou  art,  it  is. 

Ex. — Others  you'll  see,  when  all  the  toivn's  afloat. 

9.  Diteresis  separates  two  vowels  which  otherwise  might 
form  a  diphthong ;  as,  coordinate,  zoology. 

Ex. — We  ask  your  cooperation  in  this  noble  enterprise. 

10.  Tmesis  separates  a  compound  word  by  inserting  a 
word  between  its  parts  ;  as,  to  us  ward,  for  toward  us. 

Ex. — On  which  side  soever  we  turn. 


SYNTAX — FIGURES   OF   SYNTAX.  291 

216.  Figures  of  Syntax. 

1.  A  lignre  of  Syntax  is  a  deviation  from  the  ordi- 
nary consh'uction  of  a  word. 

2.  Figures  of  Syntax  consist  in  a  defect,  an  excess,  or  a 
change  in  some  of  the  elements  of  a  sentence. 

3.  Ellipsis  is  the  omission  of  a  word,  phrase,  or  clause 
which  is  necessary  to  complete  the  construction. 

Ex. — We  were  absent  [during]  one  day. 

Remark. — It  should  be  understood  that  the  words  omitted  by  this  figure 
as  truly  belong  to  the  sentence,  grammatically  considered,  as  those  which 
are  expressed.  They  are  omitted  for  rhetorical  eflfect, — that  is,  to  render  the 
sentence  more  agreeable  and  forcible. 

4.  Ellipsis  generally  takes  place, — 

(a.)  In  coordinate  constructions,  to  avoid  the  repetition  of  some 
common  part. 

Ex. — There  are  some  who  write,  [and  who]  talk,  [and  who]  think 
so  much  about  vice  and  [about]  virtue,  that  they  have  no  time  to  prac- 
tise either  the  one  or  the  other. 

{b.)  In  certain  subordinate  constructions,  especially  those  which 
denote  comparison,  for  the  same  reason. 

Ex. — Revenge  is  a  stronger  feeling  than  gratitude  [is].  Our  minds 
are  as  different  as  our  faces  [are]. 

(c.)  In  certain  idiomatic  constructions, — 

(1.)  In  elements  of  the  first  class, — the  subject  of  imperative  sentences  j 
as,  "Go  [thou]."  "Awake  [ye]."  The  noun  after  adjectives  or  after 
the  possessive  case ;  as,  "  The  violent  [persons]  take  it  by  force."  "  This 
book  is  mine;"  i.e.  my  book. 

(2.)  In  elements  of  the  second  class.  The  connective  May  be  omitted. 
Examples. — The  to  before  the  indirect  object ;  as,  "  He  gave  [to]  me  a 
book."  The  to  of  the  infinitive  after  bid,  dare,  let,  make,  hear,  r^ed,feel, 
see  To  or  unto  after  like,  near;  as,  "Like  [to]  his  father."  "Near  [to] 
the  house."  During,  over,  for,  in,  or  on,  before  nouns  denoting  time,  the 
measure  of  distance,  magnitude,  or  excess;  as,  "  They  left  [on]  Monday." 
"They  travelled  [through]  twenty  miles." 

The  object  may  be  omitted;  as,  "The  leaves  were  scattered 
around  [us]."  In  such  cases,  the  preposition  is  usually  called  an 
adverb. 


292  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

(3.)  In  elements  of  the  third  class.  The  connective  may  be  omitted  in 
substantive  clauses  in  the  objective;  as,  "My  heart  whispers,  [that]  God 
is  nigh."  In  adjective  clauses  when  the  relative  is  in  the  objective ;  as, 
"  The  paper  [which]  we  purchased  is  damaged."  "  The  house  [which] 
we  went  to  stands  on  a  hill." 

The  subject  and  copula  in  expressions  like  "  If  [it  is]  possible,  if 
necessary,  if  convenient,  when  agreeable,  while  absent,"  &c. 
The  whole  clause  between  as  and  if,  as  and  though. 
Ex. — He  seemed  as  [he  would  seem]  if  [he  were]  deranged. 

{d.)  In  exclamatory  sentences,  in  responsives,  in  inscriptions,  and 
titles. 

Ex. — [It  is]  strange !  Whom  did  you  see  ?  [I  saw]  George.  [This 
is]  the  New  Testament. 

5.  Pleonasm  is  the  use  of  superfluous  words. 

Ex. — I  know  thee  who  thou  art. 

Note. — Pleonasm  is  the  opposite  of  ellipsis,  and  may  be  said,  in  general, 
to  take  place  where  ellipsis  should,  but  does  not,  take  place. 

6.  Pleonasm  takes  place, — 

(a.)  When  the  same  idea  is  repeated  in  the  same  or  in  different 
words. 

Ex. —  Verily,  verily,  1  say  unto  you.  All  ye  inhabitants  of  the  world, 
and  dwellers  on  the  earth. 

[b.)  When  a  noun  is  introduced  into  a  sentence,  and  then  im- 
mediately represented  in  the  same  relation  by  a  pronoun. 
Ex. — Now  Harry  he  had  long  suspected. 

(c.)  When  a  noun  or  any  other  word  is  repeated  in  the  same  re- 
lation, for  the  purpose  of  modifying  it. 

Ex. — That  great  God  whom  you  see  me  daily  worship ;  —  *  —  *  — 

that  God  who  created  the  heavens  and  the  earth ; *  —  *  —  this  God 

who  has  done  all  these  great  things  —  *  —  *  —  this  great  God,  the  Creator 
of  worlds,  of  angels,  and  men,  is  your  Father  and  Friend. 

7.  Enallage  is  a  change  of  one  part  of  speech  for 
another,  or  some  modification  of  a  word  for  another. 

Ex. — They  fall  successive  [ly],  and  successive  [ly]  rise.  TTe,  Alexan- 
der, Emperor  of  Russia. 

Here  the  plural  number  is  used  for  the  singular. 


I 


SYNTAX — FIGUBES   OF   KHETORIC.  293 

8.  Hyperbaton  is  the  transposition  of  words. 
Ex. — While  its  song  rolls  the  woods  along. 


217.  Figures  of  Rhetoric. 

1.  A  figure  of  Rhetoric  is  a  deviation  from  the  ordi- 
nary application  of  a  word ;  it  is  commonly  called  a  trope, 

2.  Metaphor  gives  to  an  object  the  appropriate  name 
of  another  object,  on  account  of  a  resemblance  between 
them. 

Ex. — Man !  thou  pendulum  betwixt  a  smile  and  tear. 

3.  Stimile  is  a  formal  comparison  introduced  by  likej  as, 
or  so. 

Ex. — He  shall  be  like  a  tree  planted  by  the  rivers  of  water. 

4.  An  Allegory  is  a  continued  metaphor,  forming  a 
kind  of  parable  or  fable. 

For  examples,  see  Pilgrim's  Progress.     See,  also,  the  Eightieth  Psalm. 

5.  Personification  attributes  to  inanimate  objects  some 
of  the  qualities  of  living  beings. 

Ex. — The  sky  saddens  with  the  gathered  stornio 

6.  Metonymy  is  a  change  of  name. 

Ex. — "You  will  address  the  chair;"  i.e.  the  president. 

7.  Vision  represents  imaginary  objects  as  real  and  pre- 
sent to  the  senses. 

Ex. — ^See  lofty  Lebanon  his  head  advance ; 

See  nodding  forests  on  the  mountains  dance. 

8.  Synecdoche  is  the  use  of  a  part  for  the  whole,  or  the 
whole  for  a  part,  as  a  sail  for  a  s/iip,  a  roof  for  a  houses 
the  head  for  the  person. 

Ex. — "I  was  ordered  to  call  all  hands"  {hands  for  crew). 

9.  Irony  is  the  use  of  a  word  for  its  opposite. 

Ex. — "  He  was  as  virtuous  as  Nero ;"  i.e.  as  vile  as  Nero. 
T  25* 


294  ENGLISH  GEAMMAR. 

10.  Antithesijs  is  the  placing  of  contrary  or  opposite 
objects  in  contrast. 

Ex. — Immortal,  though  no  more ,  though  fallen,  great. 

11.  Hyperbole  magnifies  or  diminishes  an  object  be- 
yond the  truth. 

Ex. — Rivers  of  water  run  down  mine  eyes,  because  they  keep  not 
thy  law. 

12.  Exclamation  is  used  to  express  some  strong  emo- 
tion of  the  mind. 

Ex. — Oh  the  depth  of  the  riches  both  of  the  wisdom  and  the  know- 
ledge of  God ! 

13.  Interrogation  is  used  to  express  a  strong  affirma- 
tion under  the  form  of  a  question. 

Ex. — Hath  he  said  it,  and  will  he  not  do  it  ? 

14.  Apostrophe  is  a  turning  off  from  the  subject  to 

address  some  other  person  or  thing. 

Ex. — Death  is  swallowed  up  in  victory.  O  death,  where  is  thy  sting  r 
O  grave,  where  is  thy  victory? 

15.  Climax  is  a  series  of  members  in  a  sentence  each 
rising  in  importance  above  the  preceding. 

Ex. — What  hope  is  there  remaining  of  liberty,  if  whatever  is  their 
pleasure  it  is  lawful  for  them  to  do ,  if  whatever  it  is  lawful  for  them  to 
do  they  are  able  to  do;  if  what  they  are  able  to  do  they  dare  to  do;  if 
what  they  dare  to  do  they  really  execute ;  and  if  what  they  execute  is 
noway  offensive  to  you  ? 

PUNCTUATION. 

218.  Definitions  and  Distinctions. 

1.  Punctuation  is  the  art  of  dividing  written  composi- 
*iion  by  means  of  points. 

2.  Points  are  used  to  separate  either  entire  sentences,  or  the  ele- 
ments of  sentences. 

Remark. — Let  it  be  uuderstood  that  an  element  may  be  either  a  loord,  a 
phraae,  or  a  clause. 


SYNTAX — PUNCTUATION.  295 

3.  A  point  should  not  be  used, — 

(a.)  To  separate  the  parts  of  a  simple  element. 

[b.)  To  separate  two  united  elements  when  arranged  gram^ 
matically  and  closely  joined. 

(c.)  To  separate  two  united  elements  simply  because,  in  the 
utterance,  a  pause  should  be  made. 

Points  are  used  to  mark  the  sense,  rather  than  the  pauses.  It  is  true  that 
a  pause  should  generally  bo  made  where  there  is  a  point;  but  it  is  not 
equally  true  that  a  point  should  be  placed  wherever  there  is  a  pause. 

4.  A  point  is  required, — 

(1.)  Always  at  the  end  of  a  full  sentence. 

(2.)  Always  between  the  members  of  a  loose  sentence. 

(3.)  Generally  between  two  elements  of  a  sentence, — 

(a.)  When  several  similar  elements  come  together. 

(h.)  When  an  element  is  loosely  connected. 

(c.)  When  more  closely  connected,  but  transposed. 

(d.)  When    closely  connected,    but   greatly  extended   in 
length. 

(e.)  When  some  important  word  is  omitted. 

(/.)  When,  in  any  case,  the  meaning  would  be  obscure  or 
ambiguous  without  a  point. 

As  an  example  of  the  effect  of  pointing,  see  the  change  of  meaning  in  the 
following  words : — 

James  Johnson  says  he  has  written  beautifully.  James,  Johnson  says  he 
has  written  beautifully.  "  James  Johnson,"  says  he,  "  has  written  beauti- 
fully."    James  Johnson  says  he  has  written  "  beautifully." 

5.  The  principal  punctuation  marks  are  the  cornma  ( , ),  the  semi- 
colon ( ; ),  the  colon  {:),  the  dash  ( — ),  the  parenthesis  (  ),  the 
period  ( . ),  the  interrogation  point  (? ),  and  the  exclamation  point  ( I ). 


POINTS  USED  WITHIN  A  SENTENCE. 

219.  General  Uses  of  the  Comma. 

1.  The  comma  is  used  principally  in  separating  the 
elements  of  simple  or  complex  sentences. 

2.  As  the  comma  interrupts,  in  some  measure,  the  union  of  two 
elements,  it  should  never  be  employed  to  break  the  connection 
when  one  necessarily  restricts  the  meaning  of  the  other. 


296  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

3.  When  an  element  to  be  pointed  off  stands  at  the  beginning  or 
the  end  of  a  sentence,  one  comma  only  is  used;  but  when  it  stands 
within  the  sentence,  two  commas  are  usually  employed. 

Ex. — In  fact,  the  people  are  the  dupes  of  demagogues.  The  people, 
in  fact,  are  the  dupes  of  demagogues. 

4.  The  comma  is  often  used  to  mark  the  omission  of  a  word, 
especially  that  of  the  verb  in  closely  connected  clauses. 

Ex. — Semiramis  built  Babylon;  Dido,  Carthage;  and  Eomulus, 
Borne. 

5.  The  comma  may  be  used  to  separate, — 

(a.)  Coordinate  elements. 
(6.)  A  principal  from  a  subordinate  element, 
(c.)  TvfO  principal  elements. 

[d.)  An  independent  or  a  parenthetic  element  from  the  rest  of  the 
sentence. 

220.  Coordinate  Elements. 

1.  All  coordinate  elements  may  be  divided  into, — 

[a.)  coordinate  pairs,  or  couplets,  consisting  of  two  coordinate 
terms. 

(b.)  Coordinate  series,  consisting  of  three  or  more  coordinate 
terms. 

Thus,  "Nouns  and  pronouns"  is  a  couplet;  "Nouns,  adjectives,  pronouns, 
and  participles"  is  a  coordinate  series.  In  the  following  example  we  have  a 
series  of  couplets,  or  compound  terms: — "But,  whether  ingenious  or  dull, 
learned  or  ignorant,  cloicnish  or  polite,  every  innocent  man,  without  excep- 
tion, has  as  good  a  right  to  liberty  as  to  life." — Beattie. 

2.  The  pointing  of  couplets  depends  chiefly  upon  the  closeness 
of  the  connection. 

As  a  general  rule,  two  elements  are  most  closely  connected  when  correla- 
tives are  used,  except  when  used  for  contrast  or  emphasis ;  less  closely  con- 
aected  when  a  single  conjunction  is  employed ;  and  least  of  all  whdii  none  is 
used;  as,  "He  was  both  virtuous  and  wise;"  "He  was  virtuous  and  wise;" 
"  He  was  virtuous,  wise." 

3.  The  terms  of  a  coordinate  couplet,  as  a  general  rule, 
should  not  be  separated. 

Ex. — Hope  and  fear,  pleasure  and  pain,  diversify  our  lives.  Virtue 
or  vice  predominates  in  every  man  and  vjoman. 


PUNCTUATION — COOEDINATE   ELEMENTS.  297 

4.  The  terms  of  a  coordinate  couplet  should  be  sepa- 
rated,— 

[a.)  When  the  conjunction  is  omitted. 
{b.)  When  the  terms  are  identical  or  eqniTalent. 
(c.)  When  the  terms   are  contrasted  or  emphatically  distin- 
grnished. 

{d.)  When  either  term  is  limited  by  an  element  not  applicable 
to  the  other,  or  is  more  extendeil  than  the  other. 

(e.)  When  both  are  limited,  and  thus  considerably  extended. 

Ex. — (a.)  The  siveetest,  wildest  land  on  earth.  (6.)  Bise,  rise,  ye  wild 
tempests  Verily,  verily,  I  say  unto  you.  We  sailed  into  an  inlet,  or 
hay,  (c.)  'Tis  certain  he  could  write,  and  cipher  too.  The  fellow  was 
mcked,  not  weak,  (d.)  Undue  susceptibility,  and  the  preponderance 
of  mere  feeling  over  thoughtfulness,  may  mislead  us.  (e.)  Integrity 
of  understanding,  and  nicety  of  discernment,  were  not  allotted  in  a  less 
proportion  to  Dryden  than  to  Pope. 

Contrasted  words,  having  a  common  dependence,  and  not  emphatically 
distinguished,  should  not  be  separated;  as,  "He  led  an  easy  but  useless  life." 
Not  so  with  contrasted  phrases;  as,  "It  was  not  the  result  of  a  hasty,  but 
of  a  deliberate,  judgment." 

5.  The  terms  of  a  coordinate  series,-  whether  simple, 
complex,  or  compound,  should  be  separated  by  the 
comma. 

Ex. — In  pronouncing  the  words  lilies,  roses,  tulips,  pinks,  jonquils,  we 
see  the  things  themselves,  and  seem  to  taste  their  beauty  and  sweet- 
ness. The  good  man  is  alive  to  all  the  sympathies,  the  sanctions,  and 
the  loves  of  social  existence.  Sink  or  swim,  live  or  die,  I  give  my  hand 
and  my  heart  to  this  vote. 

Castles  and  villas,  titles,  vassals,  land, 
Coaches  and  curricles,  and  fours-in-hand. 

6.  The  final  term  of  a  couplet  or  a  series  is  generally  not  sepa- 
rated from  the  term  grammatically  dependent  upon  it,  except, — 

(a.)  When  the  conjunction  is  omitted. 
{b.)  When  the  terms  are  considerably  complex, 
(c.)  When  the  meaning  is  made  clearer  by  the  point.    (See  222, 
2,b.) 

Ex. — Capture,  demolish,  and  burn  their  cities,  (a.)  Capture,  demolish, 
hum,  their  cities.  (6.)  Ingratitude  for  favors,  undue  regard  for  self,  and 
forgetfulness  of  others,  are  marks  of  a  weak  and  sordid  mind. 


298  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

By  some,  yet  erroneously,  the  last  noun  of  a  compound  subject  is  sepa- 
rated from  the  verb,  even  when  the  conjunction  is  used;  as,  ^'Horner,  Virgil, 
and  Horace,  were  the  most  renowned  of  the  ancient  poets." 

7.  When  the  terms  of  a  couplet  or  a  series  consist  of  coordinate 
clauses,  whether  the  propositions  themselves  are  principal  or  sub- 
ordinate, a  comma  should  separate  them,  except  as  in  227, 1,  a,  b,  7. 

Ex. — That  their  poetry  is  almost  uniformly  mourn ful,  and  that  their 
views  of  nature  were  dark  and  dreary,  will  be  allowed  by  all  who  admit 
the  authenticity  of  Ossian.     I  was  hungry,  and  ye  gave  me  no  meat. 


221.  Exercise. 

1.  Explain  (220,  3)  why  the  following  couplets  are  not  sepa- 
rated : — 

Peter  and  John  went  up  together  into  the  temple  at  the  hour 
of  prayer.  His  bitter  and  scoffing  speech  had  inflicted  keener 
wounds  than  his  ambition.  The  powers  of  their  mind  seem  to  be 
parched  up  and  withered  by  the  public  gaze.  In  his  letters  and 
conversation  he  alluded  to  the  greatest  potentates.  He  acted 
neither  wisely  nor  prudently.     Either  you  or  I  must  go. 

2.  Explain  the  pu?ictuaiion  of  the  following  syllables  (220,  4,  a, 
b,  c,  &c.) : — 

Liberal,  not  lavish,  is  nature's  hand.  We  often  commend,  as 
well  as  censure,  imprudently.  He  can  eat,  and  sleep  too.  None, 
but  thou,  can  aid  us.  For  Christ  sent  me  not  to  baptize,  but  to 
preach  the  gospel.  Public  charities,  and  benevolent  associations, 
for  the  gratuitous  relief  of  every  species  of  distress,  are  peculiar 
to  Christianity.  Powerful  friends,  and  first-rate  connections,  often 
assist  a  man's  rise,  and  contribute  to  his  promotion.  Illustrious 
men  have  often  lived  unrewarded,  and  died  unlamented.  Blow, 
blow,  thou  winter  wind.  Freeze,  freeze,  thou  bitter  sky.  A 
comma  is  a  point,  or  mark.  Dear,  gentle,  patient,  noble  Nell  was 
dead.  The  deaf,  the  blind,  the  lame,  and  the  palsied  were  there. 
Decrepit  age,  and  vigorous  life,  and  blooming  youth,  and  helpless 
infancy  poured  forth  to  gather  round  her  tomb.  She  plans,  pro- 
vides, expatiates,  triumphs  therS.  The  rich  and  the  poor,  the  high 
and  the  low,  the  learned  and  the  unlearned,  have  access  alike  to 
this  fountain  of  peace.  The  air,  the  earth,  the  water,  teem  with 
delighted  existence.  Children  climb  the  green  mound  of  the  ram- 
part, and  ivy  holds  together  the  half-demolished  buttress. 


PUNCTUATION — ELEMENTS.  299 

When  riseth  Lacedaemon's  hardihood, 
When  Thebes  Epaminondas  rears  again, 
When  Athens'  children  are  with  arts  endued, 
When  Grecian  mothers  shall  give  birth  to  men^ 
Then  thou  may'st  be  restored ;— but  not  till  then. 

Blessing,  honor,  glory,  might. 

Are  the  Conqueror's  native  right; 

Thrones  and  powers  before  him  fall, — 

Lamb  of  God,  and  Lord  of  all  I 


222.  Principal  and  Subordinate  Elements. 

1.  A  subordinate  element  generally  is  not  separated 
from  the  principal  element  to  which  it  belongs  when  used 
restrictively,  or  when  the  connection  is  close. 

Ex. — He  that  hath  no  rule  over  his  oivn  spirit  is  like  a  city  that  is  broken 
down.  The  kings  of  the  earth  set  themselves.  The  precise  period  when 
the  discovery  was  made  is  not  known. 

2.  The  adjective  element  should  be  pointed  off  in  the  following 
cases : — 

{a.)  When  an  adjective  clause,  either  full,  or  in  its  equivalent 
abridged  form,  is  exiolanatory  (l77,  12,  b;  183,  3,  Eem.). 

Ex. — We  venerate  the  name  of  Washington,  who  was  styled  the  father 
of  his  country.  Passion  is  like  a  whirlwind,  prostrating  indiscriminately 
whatever  comes  in  its  way. 

In  this  case,  two  commas  (219,  3)  are  used  when  the  clause  comes  within 
the  sentence  before  the  predicate. 

{b  )  When  the  antecedent  is  a  coordinate  series  (220, 1),  even  a 
restrictive  clause  is  pointed  off,  to  show  that  the  relative  belongs 
equally  to  each  of  its  terms. 

Ex. — The  oxygen,  nitrogen,  and  carbonic  acid,  which  unite  to  form  the 
atmosphere,  are  mingled  in  unequal  proportions. 

(c.)  The  noun  in  apposition  may  be  considered  as  derived  from 
an  adjective  clause  containing  a  predicate  noun,  and  is  always  to 
be  pointed  off  when  it  is  explanatory  (i83,  3). 

Ex. — Moses,  the  servant  of  the  Lord,  died  there  in  the  land  of  Moab. 
I  have  killed  the  king,  my  husband. 

(d.)  A  noun  in  apposition,  when  used  restrictively,  or  when  with 


300  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

a  personal  pronoun  or  another  noun  it  forms  a  close  combination, 
is  not  pointed  ofP. 

Ex. — King  John,     General  Gates.     Ye  winds.     Gladding  brothers. 

Yet,  when  two  closely  combined  names  are  inverted,  the  comma  is  used, 
as,  "  Lincoln,  Levi ;"  "  Harrison,  William  Henry." 

(e.)  A  noun  in  apposition,  if  modified  by  phrases  or  clauses,  is 
usually  pointed  oflf. 

Ex. — Theodore,  the  hermit  of  Teneriffe. 

(/.)  A  noun  in  apposition,  or  an  adjective  or  participial  phrase 
equivalent  to  a  subordinate  clause,  when  employed  to  introduce  a 
sentence,  is  pointed  off. 

Ex. — A  professed  Catholic,  he  imprisoned  the  Pope.  Cradled  in  the 
camp.  Napoleon  was  the  darling  of  his  army. 

3.  The  objective  element,  being  closely  connected  to  the  verb  on 
which  it  depends,  unless  transposed,  should  not  be  pointed  off. 

Ex. — The  ox  knoweth  his  owner.  They  long  to  see  that  day.  I  know 
not  what  we  can  do.  The  impending  storm  which  threatened  us,  we  all 
escaped. 

{a.)  Though,  as  a  general  rule,  inverted  and  loosely  connected 
phrases  or  clauses  should  not  intervene  between  the  object  and  its 
governing  verb,  when  such  cases  do  occur,  commas  should  separate 
them  from  the  verb  and  its  object. 

Ex. — He  wishes,  in  fine,  to  join  his  companions.  He  has  bought,  a^ 
J  am  told,  a  large  tract  of  uncultivated  land. 

[b.)  When  an  objective  clause  is  a  direct  quotation,  and  is  sepa- 
rated by  the  principal  clause,  the  latter  should  be  pointed  off  by 
two  commas ;  otherwise,  by  one. 

Ex. — "For  all  that,"  said  the  pendulum,  "it  is  very  dark  here." 
I  say  unto  all.  Watch. 

(c.)  The  double  object  of  a  copulative  verb  should  not  be  sepa- 
rated when  the  first  has  the  emphasis,  or  when  they  are  equally 
emphatic. 

Ex. — They  called  him  John.    They  called  Miles  a  carpenter. 

But  when  the  emphasis  falls  strongly  on  the  second,  it  should  be 
pointed  off;  as,  "And  they  called  Barnabas,  Jupiter;  and  Paul,  Mer- 
curiua." 

4.  The  adverbial  element  is  often  more  loosely  connected  than 
either  the  adjective  or  the  objective,  and  is,  consequently,  more  fre- 


PUNCTUATION — ELEMENTS.  301: 

quently  pointed  off  on  account  of  its  transposition;  yet,  when 
arranged  in  its  natural  order,  or  when  closely  connected,  it  should 
not  be  pointed  off. 

Ex. — Rejoice  not  when  thine  enemy  falleth;  and  let  not  thine  heart  be 
glad  when  he  stumbleth.  On  the  summit  of  the  mountain  the  air  is  cool  and 
refreshing.     The  child  was  treated  kindly. 

(a.)  All  loosely  connected  adverbial  expressions,  whether  words, 
phrases,  or  clauses,  and  especially  such  adverbial  and  conjunctive 
words  and  phrases  as  again,  now,  then,  however,  therefore,  too,  besides, 
farther,  once  more,  in  fine,  in  general,  on  the  contrary,  without  doubt, 
as  it  seems  to  me,  and  the  like,  should  be  pointed  off  (227,  and  220,  3). 

Ex. — On  the  contrary,  the  truth  lies  here. 

(b.)  Phrases  and  clauses  which  in  the  natural  order  would  be 
so  closely  connected  as  to  need  no  point,  are  usually  pointed  off 
when  inverted,  and  always  when  the  meaning  would  be  doubtful 
without  a  point. 

Ex. — But  to  Ossian,  thou  lookest  in  vain.  When  thou  goest,  thy  steps 
shall  not  be  straitened. 

In  the  case  of  inverted  phrases  which  commence  a  sentence,  the  point  is 
often  omitted  ,•  as,  "  On  the  third  day  Burke  rose." — Macaulay. 

(c.)  Adverbial  clauses,  especially  when  long,  and  always  if  loosely 
connected,  are  pointed  off,  wherever  placed. 

These  are  generally  such  as  denote  condition,  picj'pose,  concession,  cause, 
time,  or  place. 

Ex. — Kiss  the  Son,  lest  he  be  angry,  and  ye  perish. 

(d.)  When  a  subordinate  element  is  connected  by  means  of 
correlatives,  it  is  closely  united,  and,  therefore,  not  generally 
pointed  off,  especially  when  than  or  as,  so  —  that,  or  such  —  that, 
are  used ;  but  is  used  more  or  less  by  way  of  contrast  in  all  other 
cases,  and,  hence,  pointed  off. 

Ex. — Never  take  more  food  than  is  conducive  to  health.  Though  thou 
be  sought  for,  yet  shalt  thou  never  be  found  again.  Though  deep,  yet 
clear. 

223.  Exercise. 

In  the  following  examples,  point  out  the  principal  and  the  subordi- 
nate elements;  and  show  why  the  comyna  is  or  is  not  used,  according  to 
222, 1,  2,  3,  4. 

He  that  covereth  his  sins  shall  not  prosper ;  but  whoso  confesseth 

2G 


302  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

and  forsaketh  them  shall  have  mercy.  The  wicked  flee  when  no 
man  pursueth.  Some  have  wondered  how  it  happens  that  those 
who  have  shone  conspicuously  at  the  bar  should  have  been  eclipsed 
in  the  senate.  He  had  faults  unknown  to  all  but  his  most  intimate 
friends  (2,  «,  ft,  c).  Men  of  strong  minds,  who  think  for  themselves, 
should  not  be  discouraged  on  finding  occasionally  that  some  of 
their  best  ideas  have  been  anticipated  by  former  writers.  There 
are  many  good-natured  fellows  who  have  paid  the  forfeit  of  their 
lives  to  their  love  of  bantering  and  raillery.  The  oranges,  lemons, 
and  figs  which  grow  in  the  northern  range  of  the  Southern  States 
are  of  an  inferior  quality.  No  thought  can  be  just,  of  which  good 
sense  is  not  the  groundwork.  I,  therefore,  the  prisoner  of  the 
Lord,  beseech  you.  Thus  saith  the  Lord,  your  Eedeemer,  the  Holy 
One  of  Israel,  I  am  the  Lord  your  God.  General  Howe  commanded 
the  British  forces.  Otis,  James  A.  0  ye  laurels !  He  called  the 
name  of  that  place  Bethel.  Daniel  Webster,  the  great  American 
statesman,  died  at  Marshfield.  I  at  first  believed  that  all  these 
objects  existed  within  me.  And  cried,  "  I've  caught  you  then  at 
last."  "My  dear  Edward,"  said  he,  "this  is  truly  kind."  For- 
tunately for  him,  a  little  below  this  place  was  an  island.  The  be- 
ginning of  strife  is  as  when  one  letteth  out  water.  If  one  burden 
can  be  borne,  so  can  another  and  another.  I  am  willing,  for  the 
general  satisfaction,  to  assign  my  reasons. 


224.  The  Principal  Elements. 

1.  Except  when  the  complex  subject  is  very  long,  no 
comma  is  required  between  it  and  the  predicate. 

Ex. — He  who  masters  his  passions  conquers  his  greatest  enemy. 

2.  It  can  scarcely  be  called  an  exception  to  this  rule  that  a  point 
should  be  placed  before  the  predicate  when  preceded  by  a  phrase 
pointed  off  by  222,  4,  a. 

Ex. — The  most  delicious  fruits,  generally  speaking,  are  found  in 
tropical  climates. 

So,  by  220,  6,  a,  a  comma  should  be  placed  before  the  predicate;  as, 
"Patience,  meekness,  humility,  are  among  the  noblest  Christian  virtues." 

When  the  logical  subject  ends  with  a  verb,  or  when  without  a  comma  the 
meaning  might  be  doubtful,  a  comma  should  be  placed  before  the  predicate 
as,  "  Whatever  is,  is  right." 


PUNCTUATION — PRINCIPAL   ELEMENTS.  303 

3.  When  the  attribute  is  a  clause,  a  comma  should  be  placed  be- 
tween it  and  the  copula. 

Ex. — The  reason  is,  that  the  proposition  itself  is  preposterous. 

225.  Exercise. 

Show  by  224, 1,  2,  8,  4,  w)iy  the  comma  is  used  or  omitted  in  the  fol- 
lowing examples : — 

The  fate  of  a  brave  people  was  to  be  decided.  Each  of  the  nego- 
tiators had  what  the  other  wanted.  Some,  from  a  diseased  fancy, 
cannot  confine  themselves  to  a  single  spot.  All  these  mistaken 
pursuers  of  good,  sooner  or  later,  are  the  prey  of  excessive  ennui. 
Industry,  frugality,  economy,  are  essential  to  thrift.  The  want  of 
fuel,  of  water,  and  of  forage,  compelled  the  party  to  retreat.  He 
who  has  learned  to  obey,  may  hope  to  govern.  He  that  seeketh, 
findeth.  The  truth  is,  that  the  whole  of  the  surface  of  these  beau- 
tiful plains  is  clad  throughout  the  season  of  verdure  with  every 
imaginable  variety  of  color.    The  question  is,  "  Where  shall  we  go?" 

226.  Independent  and  Parenthetic  Expressions. 

1.  Independent  expressions  should  be  separated 
from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  a  comma. 

Ex. — Yet  once  more,  O  ye  laurels!  Gad,  a  troop  shall  overcome 
him.  This  said,  he  formed  thee,  Adam,  thee,  Oman!  To  confess  the 
truth,  I  was  in  error.  Generally  speaking,  little  can  be  done  after  the 
first  month.     Saying,  Lord,  Lord,  open  unto  us. 

[a.)  When  a  direct  address  is  expressive  of  strong  feeling,  the 
exclamation  point  is  used. 

Ex. — O  Desdemona  !  Desdemona  i  dead ! 

[b.)  Interjections  in  many  cases  require  no  pause,  but,  when 
pointed  off"  at  all,  are  separated  by  the  comma,  if  not  emphatic; 
otherwise,  by  the  exclamation  point. 

Ex. — Oh,  sing  to  me  of  heaven  !  Lo,  here  is  Christ !  Oh,  what  a 
situation  I  am  placed  in  ! 

(c.)  Expressions  used  parenthetically  should  be  pointed  off  by 
the  comma. 

Ex. — Thou  knowest,  come  what  may,  that  the  light  of  truth  cannot  be 
put  out. 


304  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


227.  The  Semicolon  and  Colon. 

1,  The  semicolon  is  used  to  separate  the  j)arts  of  a  sen- 
tence which  are  loosely  connected. 

Ex. — Make  a  proper  use  of  your  time ;  for  the  loss  of  it  can  never  be 
regained. 

[a.)  Coordinate  principal  clauses  are  separated  by  the  semi- 
colon when  the  conjunction  is  omitted,  or  when  the  connection  is 
not  close. 

Ex. — Life  is  short ;  art  is  long.  A  clownish  air  is  but  a  small  de- 
fect ;  yet  it  is  enough  to  make  a  man  disagreeable. 

(b.)  Subordinate  parts,  when  extended,  if  they  form  a  coordi- 
nate series  either  at  the  beginning  or  end  of  a  sentence,  are  sepa- 
rated by  the  semicolon,  when  not  so  closely  connected  as  to  require 
a  comma. 

Ex. — Philosophers  assert  that  Nature  is  unlimited  in  her  opera- 
tions ;  that  she  has  inexhaustible  treasures  in  reserve ;  that  knowledge 
will  always  be  progressive ;  and  that  all  future  generations  will  continue 
to  make  discoveries  of  which  we  have  not  the  slightest  idea. 

(c.)  The  semicolon  should  be  placed  before  as,  used  to  introduce 
an  example.    See  the  use  of  as,  in  (/),  below. 

{d.)  The  semicolon  is  used  before  namely,  viz.,  to  wit,  when  the 
subdivisions  of  a  preceding  term  are  introduced  in  a  formal  way; 
otherwise,  the  comma  or  comma  and  dash  are  used. 

Ex. — Pronouns  are  divided  into  three  classes;  namely,  Personal, 
Relative,  and  Interrogative. 

Less  formally,  thus: — "Into  three  classes, — Personal,  Relative,  and 
Interrogative." 

[e.)  The  colon  is  now  but  little  used,  except  before  examples  fol- 
lowing the  expressions  as  follows,  the  following  examples,  in  these 
words,  &G. 

Ex. — Perform  the  following  exercises :  He  used  these  words :  Mr. 
President:  &c. 

(/.)  It  is  also  used  to  separate  the  terms  of  a  proportion. 
Ex.— A  :  B  : :  C  :  D. 


PUNCTUATION — DASH — PARENTHESIS.  305 

228.  Exercise. 

Insert  the  comma,  the  semicolon,  and  the  colon,  where  they  are  re- 
quired in  the  following  examples: — 

Never  value  yourself  upon  your  fortune  for  this  is  the  sign  of  a 
weak  mind.  Pope  had  perhaps  the  judgment  of  Dry  den  but  Dry- 
den  certainly  wanted  the  diligence  of  Pope.  The  great  tendency 
and  purpose  of  poetry  is  to  carry  the  mind  above  and  beyond  the 
beaten  dusty  weary  walks  of  ordinary  life  to  lift  it  into  a  purer  ele- 
ment and  to  breathe  into  it  more  profound  and  generous  emotion 
Write  on  your  slates  the  following  example  Mary  and  John  will  go 
Endeavor  to  excel  much  may  be  accomplished  by  perseverance. 
He  has  two  coats  namely  a  black  one  and  a  gray  one.  The  noun 
is  the  name  of  an  object  as  Boston  paper » 

229.  The  Dash  and  Parenthesis. 

1.  The  dash  is  used  where  there  is  a  significant  pause, 
an  unexpected  transition  in  the  sentence,  or  where  a  sen- 
tence is  left  unfinished. 

Ex. — He  sometimes  counsel  takes,  and  sometimes — snuff.  But  I 
must  first . 

2.  The  dash  is  now  frequently  used  instead  of  the  parenthesis. 
Ex. — The  colonists — such  is  human  nature — desired  to  burn  the 

town  in  which  they  had  been  so  wretched. 

3.  The  dash,  or  comma  and  dash,  may  be  placed  before  the  parts 
which  resume  a  whole,  or  before  a  construction  which  is  resumed. 

Ex. — There  are  three  persons, — i\\Q  first,  the  second,  and  the  third. 
You  speak  like  a  boy, — like  a  boy  who  thinks  the  old  gnarled  oak  can 
be  twisted  as  easily  as  the  young  sapling. 

4.  The  parenthesis  is  used  to  enclose  a  part  of  a  sen- 
tence not  necessary  to  the  construction,  but  in  some  way 
explanatory  of  the  meaning  of  the  sentence. 

Ex. — Consider  (and  may  the  consideration  sink  deep  into  your 
hearts !)  the  fatal  consequences  of  a  wicked  life. 

5.  The  parenthesis  should  be, — 

Used  when  an  incidental  clause  or  expression  is  so  disconnected 
U  26^s 


306  ENGLISH   GHAMMAR. 

as  to  admit  of  its  being  dropped  without  affecting  the  construction 
or  the  sense  of  the  main  sentence. 

Ex. — Mathematics  (see  Davies's  Bourdon)  is  the  science  of  quantity. 

FoUowed  by  whatever  punctuation  mark  the  interrupted  parts 
would  require  if  the  parenthesis  were  removed. 

Ex. — To  others  do  (the  law  is  not  severe) 

What  to  thyself  thou  wishest  to  be  done.. 

If  we  exercise  right  principles  (and  we  cannot  have  them  unless  we 
exercise  them),  they  must  be  perpetually  on  the  increase. 

In  the  first  example  no  point  would  be  required ;  in  the  second,  a  comma 
would  be  inserted.  This  seems  better  than  to  place  the  required  point  before 
each  curve,  as  some  do,  especially  as  the  expression  in  parentheses  often  re- 
quires at  the  end  a  different  point  of  its  own.     (See  6,  below,  and  example.) 

Kbmark. — Many  parenthetical  expressions  occur  which  are  to  be  pointed 
off  by  commas.  They  are  usually  connected  with  the  construction  or  the 
sense  so  as,  in  some  measure,  to  be  a  part  of  the  sentence.  Expressions  like 
said  he,  in  my  opinion,  were  formerly  included  in  parentheses,  but  now  are 
pointed  off  by  commas. 

6.  The  part  within  the  parentheses  should  be  punctuated  as  if  it 
were  an  independent  expression. 

Ex. — An  axiom  (who  denies  it  ?)  is  a  self-evident  proposition. 

230.  Exercise. 

Insert  the  dash  and  the  parenthesis  where  they  are  required  in  the 
following  examples : — 

Horror  burst  the  bands  of  sleep ;  but  my  feelings  words  are  too 
weak,  too  powerless  to  express  them.  The  Egyptian  style  of  archi- 
tecture se^Dr.  Pocock,  not  his  discourses^but  his  prints  was  appa- 
rently the  mother  of  the  Greek.  While  mey  wished  to  please,  and 
why  should  they  not  wish  it,  they  disdained  honorable  means.  If 
thou  art  he,  so  much  respected  once  but,  oh,  how  fallen !  how  de^ 
graded !  The  atmosphere  is  composed  of  three  parts  oxygen,  nitro- 
gen, and  carbonic  acid  gas.  Greece,  Carthage,  Eome,  where  are 
they? 

POINTS  USED  AT  THE  CLOSE  OF  A  SENTENCE. 
231.  The  Period. 

1.  The  period  is  used  at  the  close  of  a  declarative  or 
an  imperative  sentence. 


PUNCTUATION — INTERROGATION  POINT.  307 

Ex. — Knowledge  is  not  only  pleasant,  but  useful  and  honorable. 
Know  thyself. 

2.  The  period  is  used  after  abbreviations. 

Ex. — The  age  of  MSS.  is,  in  some  instances,  known  by  dates  inserted 
in  them.    I  was  invited  to  meet  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Clifford. 

3.  The  period  is  placed  after  any  word,  heading,  title,  or  other 
expression  used  independently  and  alone. 

Ex. — Exercise.     The  Period.    H.  Cowperthwait  and  Company. 

4.  The  period  is  used  after  letters  or  figures  used  in  enumerating 
the  parts  of  discourse. 

Ex.— V.  XII. ;  1.  2. 

In  arithmetic  it  is  used  as  a  decimal  point,  or  to  mark  periods  in  the  roots : 
thus,  5.375 )  87642. 

232.  Exercise. 

Insert  the  period  where  it  is  required  in  the  following  examples. — 
Truth  is  the  basis  of  every  virtue  It  is  the  voice  of  reason  Let 
its  precepts  be  religiously  obeyed  Never  transgress  its  limits 
Abhor  a  falsehood  1  would  say  to  the  people,  You  cannot,  with- 
out  guilt  and  disgrace,  stop  where  you  are  The  oration  was  de- 
livered by  J  L  Thompson,  Esq  The  event  occurred  B  c  1001  To 
E  H  Dana  Jun  Esq  the  well-known  author  of  "  Two  Years  before 
the  Mast,"  the  community  are  greatly  indebted  But  the  seasons 
are  not  alike  in  all  countries  of  the  same  region,  for  the  reasons 
already  given  See  Chap  VI  ^  2  T[  4  p  330  See  257,  4  Little  and 
Brown's  store  A  new  thing  under  the  sun  Kipe  apples  for  sale 
Chapter  XX  Sec  X  Part  I 


233.  Interrogation  and  Exclamation  Points. 

1.  An  interrogation  point  is  used  at  the  close  of  an 
interrogative,  and  an  exclamation  point  at  the  close  of 
an  exclamatory  sentence. 

Ex. — Who  comes  there  ?    How  unsearchable  are  his  ways ! 

2.  When  an  interrogative  sentence  is  used  as  a  subordinate 
clause, — 


308  ENGLISH   GEAMMAR. 

(1.)  The  interrogation  point  is  employed  when  the  clause  Is 
quoted  directly. 

Ex. — He  said,  "  Why  do  you  weep  ?" 

(2.)  The  interrogation  point  is  not  employed  when  the  clause  is 
quoted  indirectly. 

Ex. — He  asked  me  why  I  wept. 

3.  An  exclamation  point  is  often  used  within  a  sentence,  after  an 
exclamatory  expression  or  an  interjection. 

Ex.— O  Jove  supreme  I  whom  men  and  gods  revere !  Oh  I  let  soft 
pity  touch  the  mind  1 


2M.  Exercises. 

Insert  interrogation  and  exclamation  points  where  tJiey  are  required 
in  the  following  examples : — 

Daughter  of  Faith  awake  arise  illume  the  dread  unknown  the 
chaos  of  the  tomb  Whither  shall  I  turn  Wretch  that  I  am  To 
what  place  shall  I  betake  myself  O  Pascal  thou  wert  pure  in 
heart  in  this  world,  and  now  thou  art  in  full  sight  of  God  Apostles 
of  liberty  what  millions  attest  the  authenticity  of  your  mission 
Bid  she  fall  like  Lucifer  never  to  hope  again  To  purchase  heaven 
has  gold  the  power  Who  shall  separate  us  from  the  love  of  Christ 
What  kill  thy  friend  who  lent  thee  money,  for  asking  thee  for  it 
The  secret  I  implore :  out  with  it  speak  discover  utter 

Punctuate  correctly  in  all  respects  the  following  examples: — 

What  a  piece  of  work  is  man  How  noble  in  reason  how  infinite 
in  faculties  in  form  and  moving  how  express  and  admirable  in 
action  how  like  an  angel  in  apprehension  how  like  a  God  The  air 
was  mild  as  summer  all  snow  was  off  the  ground  and  the  skylarks 
were  singing  aloud  by  the  way  I  saw  not  one  at  Keswick  perhaps 
because  the  place  abounds  in  birds  of  prey.  Dr  H  Marsh  F  R  S  &c 
Bishop  of  Peterborough  b  1757  d  1839  As  the  pupil  is  often  obliged 
to  bend  all  his  faculties  to  the  task  before  him  and  tears  sometimes 
fell  on  the  page  he  is  studying  so  it  is  in  the  school  of  God's  provi- 
dence there  are  hard  lessons  in  it 


MARKS    USED   IN   WRITING.  309 

235.  Other  Marks  used  in  Writing. 

1.  Brackets  ( [  ] )  are  used  when  a  word  or  a  phrase  is 
introduced  into  the  language  of  another  for  explanation 
or  correction. 

Ex. — He  [the  teacher]  thus  explained  the  difficulty.  Neither  of  the 
boys  were  [was]  in  attendance. 

2.  The  Apostrophe  ( ' )  is  used  to  denote  either  the  pos- 
sessive case,  or  the  omission  of  a  letter. 

Ex. — John's.     O'er. 

3.  The  Quotation  Marhs  ( "  " )  are  used  to  include  a 
passage  taken  verbatim  from  some  other  author. 

Ex. — He  said,  "  I  relinquish  my  claim." 

4.  The  Asterisk  ( *),  the  Obelish  (f),  the  Double  Dagger 
(J),  and  the  Parallels  (||)  are  used  to  refer  to  notes  in  the 
margin  or  at  the  bottom  of  the  page.  Sometimes  the 
Section  (§)  and  the  Paragraph  (f )  are  thus  used.  Also, 
small  letters  or  figures  which  refer  to  notes  at  the  foot  of 
the  page. 

5.  The  Caret  (a)  is  used  in  writing  to  show  that  some 
letter,  word,  or  phrase  has  been  omitted. 

on 

Ex. — The  pencil  lies  the  table. 
A 

6.  The  Hyphen  (-)  is  used  to  separate  the  parts  of  a 
compound  word. 

Ex. — Book-binder. 

When  placed  at  the  end  of  a  line,  it  shows  that  the 
word  is  divided^  the  remaining  part  being  carried  to  the 
next  line. 

7.  The  Ellipsis  (***),  ( )  is  used  to  denote  the 

omission"  of  certain  letters  or  words. 

Ex.— C'^*^ll.    K g. 

8.  The  Brace  ("-v— ')  connects  a  number  of  words  with 
one  common  term. 


310  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

9.  The  Index  {j^^)  points  to  some  remarkable  passage. 

10.  The  Section  (§)  also  denotes  the  divisions  of  a 
treatise. 

11.  A  Paragraph  (^f)  also  denotes  the  beginning  of  a 
new  subject. 

12.  The  vowel-marks  are  the  Diaeresis  ( •• ),  placed  over 
the  second  of  two  vowels  which  are  separated ;  the  Long 
sound  (-),  placed  over  a  long  vowel;  the  Breve  or  Short 
sound  (--),  placed  over  a  short  vowel ;  and  accents,  Grave 
(^),  Acute  ('),  and  Circumflex  (a). 

The  best  practical  exercises  on  all  these  marks  and  points  will  be  given  by 
the  teacher.  Let  the  pupil  be  required  to  construct  sentences  requiring  the 
use  of  them;  or,  let  the  teacher  read  from  some  book  any  passage  which  de- 
mands their  use,  and  let  the  class  be  required  to  insert  them  in  their  proper 
places. 

236.  Exercise. 

Punctuate  properly  the  following  examples,  and  insert  the  capitals: — 
what  was  csesar  that  stood  upon  the  bank  of  the  rubicon  a 
traitor  bringing  war  and  pestilence  into  the  heart  of  that  country 
no  wonder  that  he  paused  no  wonder  if  his  imagination  wrought 
upon  by  his  conscience  he  had  beheld  blood  instead  of  water  and 
heard  groans  instead  of  murmurs  no  wonder  if  some  gorgon  horror 
had  turned  him  into  stone  upon  the  spot  but  no  he  cried  the  die 
is  cast  he  plunged  he  crossed  and  rome  was  free  no  more    hiowles. 

what  sort  of  eyes  can  you  have  got  said  he 
why  very  good  ones  friend  as  you  may  see 
yes  i  perceive  the  clearness  of  the  ball 
pray  let  me  ask  you  can  you  read  at  all 


SYNTAX — QUESTIONS   FOR   REVIEW. 


311 


QUESTIONS  FOR  REVIEW. 


What  is  Syntax  ?  What  does  the 
word  mean?  What  is  a  sentence? 
What  is  the  subject?  The  predicate? 
When  does  a  sentence  express  an  in- 
definite thought  ?  A  definite  thought  ? 
What  is  a  modifier?  What  are  the 
elements  of  a  sentence  ?  What  is  Syn- 
thesis? Analysis?  Into  -what  three 
parts  is  Syntax  naturally  divided  ? 

What  is  a  declarative  sentence  ?  An 
interrogative?  An  imperative?  An 
exclamatory?  A  mixed?  What  is  a 
simple  sentence  ?  A  complex  ?  A 
compound  ?  What  is  a  proposition  ? 
When  is  a  proposition  a  sentence  ?  An 
element  of  a  sentence  ?  What  is  the 
principal  proposition  ?  The  subordi- 
nate ?  How  are  entire  sentences  united 
into  paragraphs  ? 

What  are  the  principal  elements  of 
a  sentence  ?  The  subordinate  ?  When 
are  elements  coordinate?  Explain 
governs  and  limits  when  applied  to  the 
elements?  How  are  coordinate  ele- 
ments connected?  What  joins  a  sub- 
ordinate to  a  principal  element? 

When  is  an  element  substantive,  ad- 
jective, or  adverbial? 

Define  an  element  of  the  first  class. 
Of  the  second  class.  Of  the  third 
class.  Define  a  simple  element.  A 
complex.  A  compound.  The  gram- 
matical subject. 

How  many  elements  must  the  sim- 
plest sentence  have?  In  what  three 
ways  may  the  logical  subject  be 
formed  by  using  elements  of  the  first 
class  ?  Illustrate  each.  In  what  three 
ways  may  the  logical  predicate  be 
formed  ?     Illustrate  each. 

"What  is  discourse?  Direct?  Indi- 
rect? How  are  substantive  clauses 
divided?  : 

What  are  the  elements  of  a  com- 
pound sentence?  How  may  a  com- 
pound sentence  be  contracted  ?  Illus- 
trate by  examples.  How  may  a  com- 
plex sentence  be  contracted  ?  A  sub- 
ordinate clause?  When  is  the  subject 
dropped?  Name  the  two  classes  of 
abridged  propositions. 

When  is  a  sentence  transformed? 
AVhat  are  equivalents  ?    In  what  three 


ways  may  the  form  of  a  sentence  bo 
changed? 

What  three  uses  of  a  word  are  re- 
cognized? Define  a  rule  of  syntax. 
Repeat  the  rules  for  the  regular  use 
of  words. 

What  is  the  rule  for  the  subject? 
When  is  a  noun  in  the  nominative 
absolute?     In  the  objective  absolute? 

Repeat  Rule  II.  What  is  the  rule  for 
the  attribute  in  abridged  propositions  ? 

Repeat  the  rules  for  the  pronoun  and 
antecedent.  What  is  said  of  the  use 
of  it?  Of  the  erroneous  use  of  they? 
Of  things  personified  ?  Of  the  position 
of  the  pronouns  ?  Of  their  construc- 
tion ?  When  is  the  relative  restrictive  ? 
When  explanatory? 

What  are  the  rules  for  the  agreement 
of  the  verb  with  its  subject?  Repeat 
the  observations  and  cautions  under 
this  rule. 

Give  the  rules  for  the  adjective  as 
modifier  and  predicate.  When  should 
the  article  be  omitted?  inserted?  re- 
peated ?  not  be  repeated  ? 

Give  the  rule  for  the  noun  in  appo- 
sition. Distinguish  the  three  cases  of 
apposition. 

What  is  the  rule  for  the  noun  in  the 
possessive?  What  is  the  possessive 
used  to  denote? 

Give  the  rules  for  the  object. 

W^hat  is  Rule  IX.  ?  Repeat  the  ob- 
servations and  cautions  under  the  rule. 

Repeat  Rule  X.  Mention  the  five 
cases  in  which  the  noun  is  independent. 
What  is  Rule  XL?  Repeat  the  ob- 
servations and  cautions  under  the  rule. 

Repeat  the  three  rules  for  coordi- 
nate constructions. 

What  is  the  rule  for  the  preposition  ? 

Give  Rule  XIV.  When  is  the  pre- 
position omitted? 

What  is  the  rule  for  subordinate 
connectives  ?  Give  the  observations 
and  cautions  under  the  rule. 

Give  the  rules  for  the  infinitive. 
What  is  Rule  XVII.?  Repeat  the 
observations  under  this  rule. 

Repeat  the  Special  Cautions. 

When  has  a  word  a  peculiar  use? 
An  idiomatic  use? 


312  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


PROSODY. 

237.  Definitions. 

1.  Prosody  treats  of  quantity,  of  accent,  and  of  tha 
laws  of  versification. 

By  quantity,  in  Prosody,  is  meant  the  time  taken  in  pronouncing  a  syllable ; 
and  by  accent,  the  stress  of  voice  laid  upon  it. 

2.  Versification  is  the  art  of  composing  poetic  verse. 

3.  Verse  is  a  succession  of  accented  and  unaccented 
syllables,  constituting  a  line  of  ^poetry. 

The  nature  of  the  difference  between  verse  and  prose  will  be  seen  at  once 
by  comparing  the  two. 

If  any  mdn  love  the  w6rld,  the  love  of  the  Father  is  not  in  him. 

Then  sh6ok  the  hills  with  thtinder  riven ! 
Then  rtished  the  steads  to  battle  driven ! 

In  the  last  example,  it  will  be  noticed,  the  accent  occurs  regularly  on 
every  other  syllable ;  while  in  the  first  there  is  no  such  regularity  of  recur- 
rence     This  regular  recurrence  of  accented  syllables  is  called  metre. 

4.  Poetry  is  imaginative  composition  in  metrical  or 
rhythmical  language. 

5.  Poetry  is  expressed  either  in  Rhyme  or  Blank  Verse, 

6.  Rhyme  is  the  correspondence  of  sound  in  the  last 
syllables  of  two  or  more  lines. 

7.  A  true  and  perfect  rhyme  requires  that  the  syllables 
he  accented;  that  the  sound  of  the  vowel  and  of  the  letters 
following  the  vowel  be  the  same ;  and  that  the  sound  of 
the  letters  preceding  the  vowel  be  different. 

Thus,  hold  rhymes  with  cold,  sold,  fold;  weary,  with  dreary;  view,  with 
you  ;  but  /  does  not  form  a  true  rhyme  with  high  or  eye,  because  the  sound  of 
the  syllables  is  identical ;  oion  and  none  are  imperfect  rhyme,  because  the  vowel- 
sound  is  different,*  so,  also,  beneath  and  breath,  cease  and  ease,  angel  and  tell, 
merrily  and  silly,  are  faulty  rhymes. 

8.  An  accented  syllable  standing  alone  at  the  end  of  a 


PROSODY — DIFFERENT   KINDS   OF   POETRY.         31  (i 

line  forms  a  single  rhyme;  an  accented  syllable  followed 
by  an  unaccented  one  forms  a  double  rhyme;  an  accented 
syllable  followed  by  two  unaccented  ones  forms  a  tri])le 
rhyme, 

Ex. — Man,  began;  burning,  turning ;  dependency,  ascendency. 

9.  Syllables  in  the  middle  of  a  line  sometimes  rhyme 
with  those  at  the  end. 

Ex. — Once  upon  a  midnight  dreary,  while  I  pondered,  weak  and 
weary. 

10.  Blank  Verse  is  verse  without  rhyme. 

Ex. — There  is  a  nobler  glory,  which  survives 
Until  our  being  fades,  and,  solacing 
All  human  care,  accompanies  its  change. — Shelley. 

Greek  and  Latin  poetry  is  in  blank  verse.  It  was,  however,  but  little 
employed  in  European  languages,  except  in  dramatic  composition,  until 
"  Paradise  Lost"  appeared. 

238.  Different  Kinds  of  Poetry. 

1.  The  different  kinds  of  Poetry  are  Epicj  Dramatic, 
JjyriG,  Elegiac,  Didactic,  Pastoral,  Satirical,  The  Ballad, 
The  Sonnet,  The  Epigram,  The  Epitaph. 

2.  An  Epic  poem  is  a  narration  of  national  or  mytho- 
logical events  of  momentous  interest,  and  usually  cele- 
brates the  actions  of  distinguished  men,  or  heroes. 

Ex.— The  "  Iliad"  and  "  Odyssey"  of  Homer.  The  "  Paradise  Lost" 
of  Milton.  The  "^neid"  of  Virgil.  The  "Jerusalem  Delivered"  of 
Tasso. 

3.  A  Oramatic  poem  is  a  picture  of  human  life  adapted 
to  representation  on  the  stage.  It  is  divided  into  Tragedy 
and  Comedy. 

Ex. — Shakspeare's  Plays. 

4.  A  Liyric  poem  is  an  ode  or  song  set  to  music,  and,  in 
modern  times,  an  expression  of  the  individual  emotions 
of  the  poet. 

27 


314  ENGLISH   GEAMMAR. 

Ex. — Anacreon,  Pindar,  Sappho,  and  Horace  were  ancient  lyric  poets. 
Collins's  "Ode  to  the  Passions,"  and  "Alexander's  Feast"  of  Dry  den,  are 
well-known  examples  in  English  poetry. 

5.  An  Elegy  is  a  poem  on  some  mournful  theme,  ex- 
pressive of  sorrow. 

Ex. — Gray's  "  Elegy  written  in  a  Country  Church- Yard"  is  the  best 
instance  in  our  language. 

6.  Didactic  poetry  inculcates  truths  in  science  or 
morals. 

Ex. — Lucretius,  among  the  Latin  poets ;  Pope's  "  Essay  on  Man." 

7.  A  Pastoral  poem  has  for  its  subject  nature,  agri- 
cultural pursuits,  or  rural  life. 

Ex. — The  Idyls  of  Theocritus ;  the  Eclogues  and  Bucolics  of  Virgil. 

8.  A  Siatire  is  a  poem  in  which  vice  and  folly  are 

exposed  with  severity. 

Ex. — The  Satires  of  Juvenal  and  Horace,  and  of  Dryden,  Pope,  and 
Byron. 

9.  A  Ballad  is  a  short  relation,  in  simple  but  forcible 
rhyme,  of  some  brave  exploit,  national  event,  pathetic 
love-tale,  or  rustic  adventure. 

Ex. — The  literature  of  Spain,  England,  and  Scotland  abounds  in 
ballads. 

10.  A  Sonnet  is  a  short  poem  usually  complete  in  four- 
teen lines. 

Ex. — The  Sonnets  of  Petrarch,  Tasso,  Spenser,  Shakspeare,  Milton, 
and  Wordsworth,  are  the  best  known. 

11.  An  Epigrani  is  a  brief  poem  of  a  witty  or  humor- 
ous character. 

12.  An  £pitapli  is  a  short  poem  in  praise  of  the  virtues 

of  a  departed  friend. 

Ex. — Underneath  this  stone  doth  lie 
As  much  virtue  as  could  die ; 
Which  when  alive  did  vigor  give 
To  as  much  beauty  as  could  live. — Ben  Jonson. 


PEOSODY — POETIC   FEET.  315 

230.  Poetic  Feet. 

1.  The  lines  of  poetry  are  divided  by  accent  into  small 
parts,  called  ^oe^ic/ee^. 

2.  A  Foot  is  a  certain  number  of  syllables — usually  two 
or  three — forming  a  part  of  a  line  in  poetry. 

3.  In  English,  an  accented  syllable  is  considered  long;  and  an 
unaccented,  short. 

4.  A  straight  line  ( - )  over  a  syllable  shows  that  it  is  long,  or 
accented ;  a  curved  line  (^),  that  it  is  short,  or  unaccented. 

5.  The  principal  feet  in  English  are  the  iambus,  the 
ti'ochee,  the  ana^cest,  and  the  dactyl, 

6.  The  Iambus  consists  of  a  short  and  a  long  syllable. 
Ex. — Invite,  dSvote,  bSmgn. 

7.  The  Trochee  consists  of  a  long  and  a  short  syllable. 

Ex. — Grateful,  grievoiis. 

8.  The  Anapsest  consists  of  two  short  syllables  and 
one  long  one. 

Ex. — Tncdmplete,  cdnd^cend. 

9.  The  Dactyl  consists  of  one  long  syllable  and  two 
short  ones. 

Ex. — Positive,  loneliness. 

10.  Besides  the  kinds  of  feet  mentioned  above,  four  others  some- 
times occur, — the  pyrrhic  and  the  spondee,  the  amphibrach  and  the 
tribrach.  The  pyrrhic  consists  of  two  short,  and  the  spondee  of  two 
long  syllables;  as,  "m  the  {vale);"  "vain  man."  The  amphibrach 
has  three  syllables,  of  which  the  first  and  third  are  short,  the  second 
is  long;  as,  *' contentment."  The  tribrach  consists  of  three  short 
syllables ;  as,  "  [innii)merdble." 

11.  These  last  four  feet  are  seldom  found  in  English  poetry. 
They  sometimes  mingle  with  other  feet,  and  give  thereby  a  pleasing 
variety. 

Ex. — Fr6m  peak  |  t6  peak  |  th6  rat-ltllng  crags  ]  among. 

Leaps  the  \  live  thiln-\d&rl  not  |  fr5m  one  |  16ne  cloud. 

Remark. — Here,  in  the  second  line,  the  first  foot  is  a  trochee,  and  the 
second  is  a  spondee.     They  occur  in  a  single  verse  of  an  Iambic  poem. 


316  ENGLISH   GRAMMAE. 

12.  The  character  of  the  different  kinds  of  feet  is  seen  at  a 
glance  in  the  table  which  follows : — 

Feet  of  two  syllables  are  the 

lambns first  short,  second  long ^  — 

Trochee first  long,  second  short —  ^ 

Npondee both  loiig _  ._ 

Pyrrhic both  short >^  w 

Feet  of  three  syllables  are  the 

Dactyl one  long  and  two  short _    w  s^ 

Anapsest two  short  and  one  long -~^    ^  — 

Amphibrach  .  .  .  first  short,  second  long,  third  short    .  ^    —  ^ 

Tribrach three  short wws^ 


240.  Different  Kinds  of  Terse. 

1.  The  different  kinds  of  verse  receive  their  names  from 
the  kind  of  feet  of  which  they  are  formed.  Thus,  there 
are  the  iambiCj  the  trochaic^  the  anapaestic,  and  the  dactylic 
verse. 

2.  Verse  is  also  named  according  to  the  number  of  feet 
in  each  line.  Monometer  is  a  line  of  one  foot;  dimeter, 
of  two  feet;  trimeter,  of  three  feet;  tetrameter,  of  four 
feet;  pentameter,  of  five  feet;  hexameter,  of  six  feet; 
heptameter,  of  seven  feet ;  odometer,  of  eight  feet. 

3.  When  a  syllable  is  wanting,  the  line  is  said  to  be  catalectlc ; 
when  the  measure  is  full,  the  line  is  acataiectic ;  when  there  is  a 
redundant  syllable,  it  is  called  hypermeter,  or  hypercatalectic. 

4.  {Scanning  is  the  dividing  of  a  verse  into  the  feet 
which  compose  it. 

5.  A  Couplet  is  the  combination  of  two  lines  which 
usually  rhyme  together.  A  Triplet  consists  of  three  such 
lines. 

6.  A  Sitanza  is  the  combination  of  several  lines  form- 
ing a  division  of  a  poem  or  song. 


PEOSODY — IAMBIC   VERSE.  317 

241.  Iambic  Terse. 

1.  Iambic  of  one  foot, — monometer: — 

They  go 
To  sow. 

2.  Iambic  of  two  feet, — dimeter: — 

To  me  I  the  rose 
No  longer  glows. 

3.  Iambic  of  three  feet, — trimeter: — 

No  roy- 1  al  pomp  |  adorns 
This  King  of  righteousness. 

4.  Iambic  of  four  feet, — tetrameter: — 

And  cold-jer  still  |  the  winds  |  did  blow, 
And  darker  hours  of  night  came  on. 

5.  Iambic  of  five  feet,— pentameter : — 

6n  rift- led  rocks,  |  the  drag-jon's  late  |  abodes, 
The  green  reed  trembles,  and  the  bulrush  nods. 

6.  Iambic  of  six  feet, — hexameter: — 

His  heart  |  is  sad,  |  his  hope  |  is  gone,  |  his  light  |  is  passed; 
He  sits  and  mourns  in  silent  grief  the  lingering  day. 

7.  Iambic  of  seven  feet, — heptameter: — 

The  lof-lty  hill,  |  the  hum-jble  lawn,  |  with  count- 'less 

beati-  |  ties  shine ; 
The  silent  grove,  the  solemn  shade,  proclaim  thy  power 

divine. 

8.  Iambic  of  eight  feet, — octometer: — 

In  the  spring  a  fuller  crimson  comes  upon  the  robin's  breast ; 
In  the.spring  the  wanton  lapwing  gets  himself  another  nest. 

9.  Iambic  of  five  feet  is  called  Heroic  verse ;  that  of  six 
feet  is  called  Alexandrine. 

10.  In  the  Long  Metre  stanza  each  line  has  four  iambic 

feet. 

Through  every  age,  eternal  God, 
Thou  art  our  rest,  our  safe  abode ; 
High  was  thy  throne  ere  heaven  was  made, 
Or  earth,  thy  humble  footstool,  laid. 
27* 


318  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Ill    llio    Sliort   Metre    stanza   the    first,    second,    and 
fourth  lines  contain  three  iambic  feet,  the  third  four. 

Sweet  is  the  time  of  spring, 

When  nature's  charms  appear; 
The  birds  with  ceaseless  pleasure  sing, 

And  hail  the  opening  year. 

An  iambic  of  seven  feet  is  commonly  divided  into  two 
lines, — the  first  containing  four  feet,  the  second  three. 
This  is  called  the  Common  Metre  stanza. 

The  lofty  hill,  the  humble  lawn, 

With  countless  beauties  shine; 
The  silent  grove,  the  solemn  shade. 

Proclaim  thy  power  divine. 

11.  Each  species  of  iambic  verse  may  have  one  addi- 
tional short  syllable,  thus : — 

(a.)  Ee lent- ling. 

{b.)  Upon  I  a  moun-|tain. 

(c.)  When  on  |  her  Ma-jker's  bo-|som. 

[d.)  First  this  |  large  par- j eel  brings  [  you  ti-| dings. 

(e.)   Each  sub- [stance  of  |  a  grief  |  hath  twen-jty  shad-|ows. 

(/.)  Thine  eye  |  Jove's  light- ining  seems,  |  thy  voice  |  his  dread-] 

fill  thun-|der. 
[g.)  How  gay-|ly  o-|ver  fell  |  and  fen  |  yon  sports- j  man  light  j 
is  dash- ling  I 


242.  Trochaic  Terse. 

1.  Trochaic  of  one  foot : — 

Changing, 
Eanging. 

2.  Trochaic  of  two  feet: — 

Fancy  |  viewing, 
Joys  ensuing. 

3.  Trochaic  of  three  feet : — 

Go  where  1  glory  |  waits  thee, 
But  when  fame  elates  thee. 


PROSODY — ANAP^STIC   VERSE.  319 

4.  Trochaic  of  four  feet : — 

'Twas  the  |  hour  when    ]  rites  tin- [holy 
Called  each  Paynim  voice  to  prayer. 

5.  Trochaic  of  five  feet: — 

All  that  I  walk  on  |  foot  or  |  ride  in  |  chariots, 
All  that  dwell  in  palaces  or  garrets. 

6.  Trochaic  of  six  feet: — 

On  a  I  mountrdn,  |  stretched  be-lneath  a  |  hoary  |  willow, 
Lay  a  shepherd  swain,  and  viewed  the  rolling  billow. 

7.  In  trochaic  verse,  the  accent  is  placed  upon  the  odd 
syllables;  in  iambic,  on  the  even. 

8.  Trochaic  verse  may  take  an  additional  long  sylla- 
ble; as, — 

[a.)  Where  we  1  may 

Think  and  pray. 
(h.)  And  at  |  morn  they  |  play, 

In  the  foaming  spray, 
(c.)  Heaving  |  upward  |  to  the  |  light. 
[d.)  Wherefore  |  thus  my  |  weary  |  spirit  \  woo? 
[e.)  Eeared'mid  |  fauns  and  |  fairies,  |  knew  he  |  no  com- [  peers. 
(/.)  Casting  |  down  their  |  golden  |  crowns  a- 1  round  the  |  glassy 
I  sea. 

243.  Anapaestic  Terse. 

1.  Anapoestic  of  one  foot: — 

But  in  vain 
They  complain. 

2.  Anapcestic  of  two  feet: — • 

Where  the  sun  [  loves  to  pause 
With  so  fond  a  delay. 

3.  Anapcestic  of  three  feet:^- 

From  the  cen- 1  tre  all  round  |  to  the  sea, 
I  am  lord  of  the  fowl  and  the  brute. 

4.  Anapcestic  of  four  feet: — 

O,  young  I  Lochmvar  |  is  come  out  |  of  the  west ! 
Through  all  |  the  wide  bor- 1  der  his  steed  |  was  the  best. 


320  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

5.  In  anapaestic  verse,  the  accent  falls  on  every  third 
syllable.  The  first  foot  of  an  anapaestic  verse  may  be  an 
iambus;  as, — 

And  mor-Itals  the  sweets  |  of  forget- j  fulness  prove. 

244.  DactyKc  Terse. 

1.  Dactylic  of  one  foot : — 

Cheerfully, 
Fearfully. 

2.  Dactylic  of  two  feet: — 

Father  all  |  glorious, 

O'er  all  victorious.  • 

3.  Dactylic  of  three  feet: — 

Wearing  a- 1  way  in  his  |  youthf  ulness, 
Loveliness,  beauty,  and  truthfulness. 

4.  Dactylic  of  four  feet: — 

Shame  and  dis-  j  honor  sit  |  by  his  grave  |  ever, 
Blessings  shall  hallow  it  never,  oh,  never  I 

5.  Few  poems  are  perfectly  regular  in  their  feet.  Dac- 
tylic verse  is  very  irregular;  the  final  short  syllables  are 
often  omitted,  as  in  the  last  example.  The  different  kinds 
of  feet  are  often  mingled  in  the  same  verse,  thus : — 

1  come,  I  I  come;  ]  ye  have  called  |  me  long; 

I  come  I  o'er  the  moun-Jtains  with  light  |  and  song. 


245.  Poetic  Pauses. 

1.  Besides  the  pauses  required  by  the  sense  or  gram- 
matical construction  of  verse,  two  pauses — the  final  and 
the  ccesural — may  also  occur. 

2.  The  final  pause   occurs   at   the  end  of  each  line,, 
whether  the  sense  requires  it  or  not. 

The  csesural  pause  is  a  natural  suspension  of  the  voice, 
which  occurs  in  the  line  itself,  and  is  readily  perceived 


i 


PEOSODY — POETIC   LICENSE.  321 

when  the  verse  is  well  read.  It  is  found  in  long  lines, 
and  generally,  but  not  always,  about  the  middle  of  the 
line. 

Ex. — The  earth  grew  silent  |  when  thy  voice  departed ; 
The  home  too  lonely  |  whence  thy  step  had  fled : 
What  was  there  left  for  her,  |  the  faithful-hearted? 

Remark. — The  skill  of  the  poet  is  shown  in  making  these  pauses  occu» 
where  the  thought  requires  them. 


246.  Poetic  License. 

1.  Poetic  Liicense  is  the  indulgence  in  a  peculiar  use 
of  language  granted  to  poets  by  common  consent. 

This  freedom  from  a  strict  compliance  with  the  usage  of  prose  writers  is 
rendered  necessary  by  the  requirements  of  quantity,  accent,  rhythm,  and 
harmony. 

2.  Many  of  the  deviations  from  the  ordinary  use  and 
construction  of  w^ords  have  been  already  considered  in  the 
articles  on  Figures  of  Etymology,  Syntax,  and  Rhetoric. 
(See  215,  216,  217.) 

3.  Besides  these,  the  poets  make  use  of — 

(1.)  Antiquated  words    and    phrases;    as,  yclep'd,   mote,   SOOthf 
trow,  welkin,  yon,  whilom,  ope,  fount,  erst,  eke,  ween,  wight,  hight. 
Ex. — For  well  I  ween 

He  saved  the  realm,  who  saved  the  queen. 

(2.)  Componnd  epithets ;  2i^,  new-spangled,  gray-hooded,  flowery- 
hirtled,  violet-embroidered,  diver-shafted. 

Ex. — Had  ta'en  their  supper  on  the  savory  herh 
Of  knot-grass  dew-besprent, 
(3.)  Foreig^n  idioms. 

Ex. — He  knew  to  sing  and  build  the  lofty  rhyme. 
Long  were  to  tell  what  I  have  seen. 

(4.)   Of  an  unnsnal  and  inverted  arrang-ement  of  WOrds. 
{a.)  The  subject  follows  the  verb. 
Ex. — Come  I  to  speak  in  Caesar'R  fnnoral. 


322  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

{b.)  The  object  is  put  before  the  verb. 

Ex. — These  delights  if  thou  canst  give. 
(c. )  The  adjective  is  placed  after  the  noun. 

Ex. —  And  Twilight  gray 

Had  in  her  sober  livery  all  things  clad. 

247.  Exercise. 

1.  Scan  the  following,  and  tell  what  kind  of  verse  it  is: — 
Art  is  long,  and  time  is  fleeting, 

And  our  hearts,  though  stout  and  brave, 
Still,  like  muffled  drums,  are  beating 

Funeral  marches  to  the  grave. — Longfellow. 

From  Greenland's  icy  mountains. 

From  India's  coral  strand ; 
Where  Afric's  sunny  fountains 

Roll  down  their  golden  sand ; 
From  many  an  ancient  river. 

From  many  a  palmy  plain. 
They  call  us  to  deliver 

Their  land  from  error's  chain. — Heber. 

Hail,  holy  Light,  offspring  of  Heaven  first-born, 
Or  of  the  Eternal  co-eternal  beam ! 
May  I  express  thee  unblamed?  since  God  is  light, 
And  never  but  in  unapproach6d  light 
Dwelt  from  eternity,  dwelt  then  in  thee, 
Bright  effluence  of  bright  essence  increate ! 
Or  hear'st  thou  rather,  pure  ethereal  stream. 
Whose  fountain  who  shall  tell? — Milton. 

Ye  nymphs  of  Solyma?  begin  the  song; 

To  heavenly  themes  sublimer  strains  belong. 

The  mossy  fountains  and  the  sylvan  shades. 

The  dreams  of  Pindus  and  th'  Aonian  maids. 

Delight  no  more ! — O  thou  my  voice  inspire, 

Who  touched  Isaiah's  hallowed  lips  with  fire ! — Pope. 

Ruin  seize  thee,  ruthless  king ! 

Confusion  on  thy  banners  wait! 
Though  fanned  by  conquest's  crimson  wing. 

They  mock  the  air  with  idle  state. — Gray. 


PrwOSODY — EXERCISES   IN   SCANNING.  323 

Earth  may  hide — waves  engulf— fire  consume  us, 

But  they  shall  not  to  slavery  doom  us. 

If  they  rule,  it  shall  be  o'er  our  ashes  and  graves. 

But  we've  smote  them  already  with  fire  on  the  waves ; 

And  new  triumphs  on  land  are  before  us. 

To  the  charge! — Heaven's  banner  is  o'er  us ! — Campbell. 

Hail  to  the  chief  who  in  triumph  advances  I 
Honored  and  blest  be  the  ever-green  pine ! 
Long  may  the  tree  in  his  banner  that  glances 
Flourish,  the  shelter  and  grace  of  our  line ! 

Heaven  send  it  happy  dew. 

Earth  lend  it  sap  anew, 
Gayly  to  bourgeon,  and  broadly  to  grow, 

While  every  highland  glen 

Sends  our  shout  back  again, 
Eoderigh  Vich  Alpine  Dhu,  ho !  ieroe ! — Scott. 

The  night-winds  come  and  go,  mother,  upon  the  meadow  grass. 
And  the  happy  stars  above  them  seem  to  brighten  as  they  pass ; 
There  will  not  be  a  drop  of  rain  the  whole  of  the  livelong  day. 
And  I'm  to  be  Queen  o'  the  May,  mother,  I'm  to  be  Queen  o'  the 
May. — Tennyson. 

Then  read  from  the  treasured  volume 

The  poem  of  thy  choice. 
And  lend  to  the  rhyme  of  the  poet 

The  beauty  of  thy  voice. 
And  the  night  shall  be  filled  with  music, 

And  the  cares  that  infest  the  day 
Shall  fold  their  tents,  like  the  Arabs, 

And  as  silently  steal  away. — Longfellow. 

Know  ye  the  land  where  the  cypress  and  myrtle 

Are  emblems  of  deeds  that  are  done  in  their  clime, — 

Where  the  rage  of  the  vulture,  the  love  of  the  turtle, 
Now  melt  into  softness,  now  madden  to  crime? 

Tis  the  land  of  the  East ! — 'tis  the  clime  of  the  Sun ! — • 

Can  he  smile  on  such  deeds  as  his  children  have  done? 

Byron, 

THE  END. 


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